The opening line of the Tao Te Ching declares that the Tao which can be told is not eternal Tao, establishing a paradox that has defined the tradition for over two millennia. This enigmatic force, known variously as way, road, path, or technique, serves as the underlying cosmic power that creates the universe and supports all culture. Unlike the anthropomorphic gods of Western traditions, the Tao is an organic order, an infinite and boundless natural pattern that is both the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course. It is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather together while still changing, reflecting the deep-rooted belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental characteristic of things. Taoist thought views the universe as a microcosm of the self, where the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world can be observed and described, yet the ultimate reality remains indescribable and transcends all analysis. This dual nature of the Tao, simultaneously the transcendent ineffable mystery and the natural visible tangible pattern, forms the foundation for all subsequent practices and beliefs within the tradition.
The Hermit and The State
Zhuang Zhou, who lived between 370 and 290 BCE, stands as the most influential of the Taoist hermits, insisting that he and his followers were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. His life and teachings offer a stark contrast to the political ambitions of the time, as he famously preferred to live a life of solitary simplicity, like a turtle who prefers to live in the mud rather than to be displayed at court. This preference for the uncarved log, or pu, represents the original nature prior to the imprint of culture, a state one may return to by freeing oneself from selfishness and desire. While Zhuang Zhou lived as a hermit, other early Taoist movements sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles, leading to the formation of organized groups like the Way of the Celestial Masters. The tension between the hermit's retreat and the state's demands created a dynamic where Taoism could serve as both a theoretical foundation for politics and a refuge from it. The Yellow Turban Rebellion of the late Han dynasty exemplified this political potential, as Taoist secret societies attempted to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy, though the movement was eventually crushed after years of bloody war.
The Alchemist's Elixir
The quest for immortality drove the development of external alchemy, a tradition that sought to create elixirs using toxic substances like cinnabar, lead, mercury, and realgar to achieve physical longevity. This practice, known as Taiqing or Great Clarity, was a tradition of external alchemy that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic substances that could prove fatal to the unwary. The belief that one could ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality inspired a vast array of rituals and practices, from the use of talismans to the cultivation of qi, the vital breath that circulates throughout the universe and human bodies. The Taiqing tradition was one of the earliest forms of Taoism to coalesce into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu, modern Sichuan, during the Han dynasty. The Huang-Lao movement, influential during the 2nd century BCE, and the Taipingjing, important sources from this period, laid the groundwork for later developments. The belief in immortality was not merely a desire for long life but a spiritual transcendence, a way to become a xian, an immortal being with vast supernatural powers who could shapeshift and live in heavenly realms.
The 6th century CE marked a pivotal moment when Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism, leading to the emergence of the Three Teachings discourse. This period saw the rise of the Shangqing and Lingbao schools, which introduced new scriptures and practices that integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology, worldview, scriptures, and practices. The Lingbao school, most influential during the later Song dynasty, practiced purification rituals called purgations in which talismans were empowered and adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. The scholar Lu Xiujing, who lived from 406 to 477, was a key figure in this synthesis, developing the schema known as the three caverns to arrange the Taoist scriptures and deities. He worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang canon, which was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor, establishing the boundaries and contents of the teachings of the Tao. This integration was not merely academic but practical, as it created a vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras, allowing Taoism to evolve and remain relevant in a changing religious landscape.
The Emperor and The Sage
The Tang dynasty represented the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. Emperor Xuanzong, who reigned from 712 to 755, was a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works and had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs. He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced a separate examination system based on Taoism. The court Taoist and writer Du Guangting, who lived from 850 to 933, wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography, and reorganized and edited the Daozang after a period of war and loss. The Five Dragons Temple, the first temple at the Wudang Mountains, was constructed during the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong, and Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts. The relationship between the emperor and the sage was symbiotic, with the emperor seeking to enhance the prestige of the sovereign through Taoist rituals, while the sages provided the spiritual legitimacy needed to rule.
The Monastic Revolution
The Quanzhen School, founded in the 12th century by Wang Chongyang, who lived from 1113 to 1170, marked a shift toward inner transformation, mystical experience, monasticism, and asceticism. This school focused on inner alchemy, a practice that sought to harmonize the body's qi through dieting and meditation, and became the largest and most important Taoist school in China. The Quanzhen school was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition, and Wang Chongyang believed that the three teachings, when investigated, prove to be but one school. The school flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty, when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan and ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. The Longmen school, a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple, synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class.
The Global Exile
The 20th century brought unprecedented destruction to Taoism, as religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts beset China in the so-called century of humiliation. During the Cultural Revolution, which lasted from 1966 to 1976, many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps, and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular use. This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China, who immigrated to Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North America, making Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world. The communist repression had the consequence of making Taoism a global faith, with Taoist-influenced practices like tai chi and qigong becoming popular around the world. The White Cloud Temple at Beijing remains the most important center for the training of Taoist monastics on the mainland, while the five sacred mountains of China also contain influential Taoist centers. Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People's Republic of China, and it is practiced much more freely in Taiwan and Hong Kong, where it is a major religion and retains unique features and movements that differ from mainland Taoism.