Taoism
In the early Warring States period, between 400 and 300 BCE, a cluster of thinkers began to articulate ideas that would become Taoism. The epigrammatic texts known as the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi emerged during these decades. These works were largely composed by anonymous authors or attributed figures like Laozi and Zhuang Zhou. Scholars such as Harold Roth describe early Taoism as a series of inner-cultivation lineages where master-disciple communities practiced apophatic meditation. This approach sought union with the Dao through contentless awareness rather than conceptual thought. Before the Han dynasty, no real organized group called themselves Taoists. Instead, various behaviors and interpretative frameworks existed. These included ideas from the I Ching, the School of Naturalists, Mohist theories, Legalist concepts, and Confucian thoughts. They eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of what we now call Taoism. Early movements drew on diverse influences including Shang and Zhou state religions. They utilized divination, ancestor worship, and the concept of Heaven (Tian). Female shamans played an important role in the southern state of Chu. These practitioners engaged in magic, medicine, divination, and ecstatic wanderings. Some early Taoists lived as hermits who refused political life while others sought to establish harmonious societies based on natural principles.
The Way of the Celestial Masters developed at the end of the 2nd century CE from the Five Pecks of Rice movement. Zhang Daoling claimed to have received a vision of Laozi in 142 CE. He taught people to repent and prepare for a coming cataclysm that would usher in a new era of peace. This mass movement allowed men and women to act as libationers and tend to commoners. A related movement called the Way of Great Peace arose in Shandong seeking to replace the Han dynasty. It led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion which was crushed after years of bloody war. The Celestial Masters survived this period and grew influential during the Three Kingdoms period. Warlord Cao Cao officially recognized their school in 215 CE. In return they legitimized his rise to power. During the Six Dynasties era between 316 and 589 two new traditions emerged: Shangqing and Lingbao. Yang Xi received revelations from gods and spirits between 364 and 370. These included detailed descriptions of heavens and methods of shamanic travel. Ge Chaofu compiled scriptures between 397 and 402 that formed the foundation of the Lingbao school. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang canon published at the behest of the Chinese emperor. He gained community acceptance for a common canon establishing boundaries of teachings. The Tang dynasty marked the height of Taoist influence when it became the dominant religion in China. Emperor Taizong constructed the Five Dragons Temple at Wudang Mountains in the 7th century. This site later became a major center for Taoist martial arts. The Quanzhen School founded by Wang Chongyang in 1113 competed with other traditions and flourished under the Yuan dynasty. Qiu Chuji met Genghis Khan who made him leader of all Chinese religions exempting institutions from taxation.
The opening line of the Tao Te Ching states that the Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao. Livia Kohn describes the Tao as the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe and supports culture. It is literally the way things develop naturally and how nature moves along. Louis Komjathy writes that Taoists have described the Tao as dark, indistinct, obscure, and silent. Wing-tsit Chan calls it an ontological ground and the One which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It serves as both the beginning of all things and the way all things pursue their course. The active expression of Tao is called De or virtue resulting from living and cultivating the Tao. Ziran refers to self-organization and spontaneity describing the primordial state of all things. Zhuangzi notes there is no ultimate cause making things what they are; existence exists just as it is. The Book of Changes symbolizes change through hexagrams representing 64 related force relationships known as yin and yang. Wang Bi described Tao as nothingness while Guo Xiang rejected this holding true source was spontaneous self-production. Zhou Dunyi created a cosmological taijitu diagram showing the formless Wuji giving birth to yin and yang. The root of creation rested in deep chaos evolving into the One then bringing forth the Two energies. These merged in harmony creating the Three from which myriad beings came forth. Yin and yang exist in mutual harmony interdependence applying to bright-dark light-heavy soft-hard strong-weak above-below ruler-minister male-female pairs.
Taoist physical cultivation relies on purifying and transforming the body's qi vital breath energy through dieting and meditation. The Neiye text teaches qi cultivation methods where human life is accumulation of qi and death its dispersal. Everyone has some amount of qi gaining and losing it various ways. Through qi cultivation methods practitioners harmonize their qi improving health longevity and attaining magic powers or social harmony. Qi forms one of the Three Treasures alongside jing essence foundation for vitality and shen spirit subtle consciousness capacity connecting with spiritual reality. These three associate with elixir fields dantian and organs differently. The complex Taoist schema of the body contains parallels with Traditional Chinese medicine used for somatic transformation via neidan internal alchemy. Zhuangzi describes fasting of the mind as a kind of Taoist meditation emptying the mind activating qi. Cultivation of innate nature often associates with stillness practices like qinggong while life-destiny revolves around movement-based practices dongong. Tai chi developed during the 20th century led by figures like Yang Chengfu and Sun Lutang though modern scholars note claims linking Zhang Sanfeng lack credible historical evidence. Qigong fever surged in China during the 1980s and 1990s seeing popularity throughout mainland regions. New religions associated with Qigong such as Zangmigong Zhong Gong and Falun Gong emerged before being outlawed by the CCP.
Taoist theology features apophatic emphasis on formless unknowable nature of the Dao prioritizing Way over anthropomorphic God concepts. Nearly all sects share this core belief yet secondary level includes vast pantheon deities spirits from Chinese mythology making it animistic polytheistic. Gods recognized divine beings ancestors ritually integrated dead specific lineage ghosts disenfranchised spirits orphans widows unexpected deaths. Some texts discuss demons mo referring disorientated spirits unresolved qi-patterns. At ultimate level is Dao uncreated source ongoing process through which all things arise transform. Three Pure Ones generally treated highest manifestations Yuanshi Tianzun Lingbao Tianzun Daode Tianzun. Daode Tianzen seen deified form Laozi tying third Pure One to Tao Te Ching role revealer teacher. Jade Emperor functions sovereign ruler administering cosmos through vast celestial bureaucracy modeled ancient imperial court assisted Four Heavenly Ministers sometimes extended six later traditions. Three Great Emperor Officials grant blessings pardon forgiveness relief calamities disasters. Five Wufang Shangdi sovereigns fivefold cosmos corresponding Wood Fire Earth Metal Water phases. Xuanwu martial protector linked exorcism northern power policing protection side cosmos. Queen Mother West supreme mother goddess associated immortality Kunlun peaches paradise motifs longevity immortal imagery. Eight Immortals widely known figures in popular religion Zhang Daoling Wei Huacun Lu Xiujing Wang Chongyang Lü Dongbin represent important history.
During 19th and 20th centuries Taoism suffered destruction religious persecution numerous wars conflicts beset China so-called century humiliation. Factors included Confucian prejudices anti-traditional Chinese modernist ideologies European Japanese colonialism Christian missionary activity. By 20th century only one complete copy Daozang survived intact stored White Cloud Monastery Beijing. Chen Yingning key member early Chinese Taoist Association wrote books promoting practice during period 1880 to 1969. Cultural Revolution between 1966 and 1976 saw many priests laicized sent work camps sites temples destroyed converted secular use. Period exodus Taoists out China immigrated Korea Malaysia Singapore Taiwan Thailand Europe North America communist repression consequence making Taoism world religion disseminating throughout global regions. Reform opening up period beginning 1979 mainland China experienced increased religious freedom leading restoration many temples communities publishing literature preservation material culture. Hu Fuchen Liu Xiaogan worked develop New Daojia parallel rise New Confucianism. Today Taoism one five official recognized religions People's Republic China government regulates activities through Chinese Taoist Association. White Cloud Temple Beijing remains most important center training monastics mainland five sacred mountains contain influential centers Wudangshan Mount Longhu Mount Qiyun Mount Qingcheng Mount Tai Zhongnan mountains Mount Mao Mount Lao. Practice much more freely Taiwan Hong Kong major religion retaining unique features movements differ mainland. Outside China traditionally practices spread especially Chinese emigration conversion non-Chinese tai chi qigong popular worldwide influence ubiquitous divination magical practices.
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Common questions
When did Taoism begin and what texts defined it?
Taoism began in the early Warring States period between 400 and 300 BCE. The defining epigrammatic texts known as the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi emerged during these decades.
Who founded the Way of the Celestial Masters and when was it established?
Zhang Daoling claimed to have received a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and developed the Way of the Celestial Masters at the end of the 2nd century CE from the Five Pecks of Rice movement. Warlord Cao Cao officially recognized their school in 215 CE.
What is the meaning of the term Dao in Taoist theology?
Livia Kohn describes the Tao as the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe and supports culture. It is literally the way things develop naturally and how nature moves along.
How does Taoist physical cultivation work through qi energy?
Taoist physical cultivation relies on purifying and transforming the body's qi vital breath energy through dieting and meditation. Qi forms one of the Three Treasures alongside jing essence foundation for vitality and shen spirit subtle consciousness capacity connecting with spiritual reality.
Which deities are considered the highest manifestations in Taoist pantheon?
The Three Pure Ones generally treated highest manifestations Yuanshi Tianzun Lingbao Tianzun Daode Tianzen serve as the primary divine figures. Daode Tianzen seen deified form Laozi tying third Pure One to Tao Te Ching role revealer teacher.