Politics
The English word politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle's classic work, Politiká. In the mid-15th century, this composition was rendered in Early Modern English as The book of Politics before evolving into the modern term. Harold Lasswell offered a concise definition stating that politics is simply who gets what, when, and how. David Easton described it differently as the authoritative allocation of values for a society. Vladimir Lenin argued that politics represents the most concentrated expression of economics. Otto von Bismarck gave a practical view during a Reichstag speech on the 29th of January 1886, calling it the capacity to choose the least harmful option in constantly changing situations. Bernard Crick defined it as a distinctive form of rule where people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences. Adrian Leftwich expanded this further by including all activities of cooperation, negotiation, and conflict within and between societies. These definitions reveal that politics can be viewed extensively across human social relations or limited strictly to governance contexts. A feminist perspective might argue that sites traditionally seen as non-political should indeed be considered political under the slogan the personal is political. Robert A. Dahl suggested that politics may also be defined by the use of power itself rather than just decision-making processes.
Early human forms of social organization known as bands and tribes lacked centralized political structures entirely. These groups are sometimes referred to as stateless societies because they had no formal government apparatus. In ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states do today. Their borders were more accurately described as frontiers rather than fixed lines on a map. Early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their actual borders around approximately 3000 BC. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa with boundaries stretching to areas where oases existed. Early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia with borders extending from the Persian Gulf to parts of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups came together to form states due to shared rational interests like developing agriculture. The hydraulic hypothesis suggests the state arose from the need to build large-scale irrigation projects. Conflict theories regard dominance of one population over another as key to state formation instead of voluntary agreement. Warfare was critical for some theories regarding how states formed historically. By the 12th century many people still lived in non-state societies ranging from egalitarian bands to complex chiefdoms.
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 is considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system. This treaty established that external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs entirely. Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel laid out this principle of non-interference during the mid-18th century. States became the primary institutional agents within an interstate system of relations after this event. The League of Nations was founded after World War I to manage global political interactions. After World War II the United Nations replaced the League of Nations to handle various international treaties. Regional integration has been pursued by organizations such as the African Union, ASEAN, the European Union, and Mercosur. International political institutions on the global level include the International Criminal Court, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization. Political globalization began in the 20th century through intergovernmental organizations and supranational unions. Emerging powers are potentially destabilizing to the world order especially if they display revanchism or irredentism. States able to exert strong international influence are referred to as superpowers while less powerful ones may be called regional or middle powers.
Forms of government can be classified by several ways including structure of power and source of authority. In terms of structure there are monarchies including constitutional monarchies and republics usually presidential or parliamentary. The separation of powers describes the degree of horizontal integration between legislature, executive, judiciary, and other independent institutions. Democracies base political legitimacy on popular sovereignty with forms including representative democracy, direct democracy, and demarchy. Oligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules over the rest of society. Autocracies are either dictatorships including military dictatorships or absolute monarchies. Federations were formed first in Switzerland then in the United States in 1776. Canada became a federation in 1867 while Germany followed in 1871 and Australia in 1901. A confederation has less centralized power compared to a federation which features partially self-governing provinces under a central federal government. Unitary states represent the most integrated form of vertical political organization. Max Weber defined the state as a political entity that holds a monopoly on violence within its territory. The Montevideo Convention holds that states need a defined territory, permanent population, government, and capacity to enter international relations.
A common way of understanding politics is through the left-right political spectrum dating from the French Revolution. Members of the National Assembly who supported the republic sat on the left while supporters of monarchy sat on the right. Today the left is generally progressivist seeking social progress in society through reformist approaches like social democracy. Extreme elements named the far-left tend to support revolutionary means for achieving this goal such as Communism and Marxism. In contrast the right is generally motivated by conservatism seeking to conserve important elements like law and order. The far-right goes beyond this often representing a reactionary turn against progress with examples including Fascism and Nazism. Norberto Bobbio argued that the left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality while the right regards it as natural. Christian Democracy claims to combine left and right-wing politics within a wider framework of moral principles. Movements claiming to be above the divide include Fascist Terza Posizione economic politics in Italy and Peronism in Argentina. Ideological political parties act as mediating brokers between individual citizens and governments according to Anthony Downs. His 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy laid out this view regarding how parties function within democratic systems.
The study of politics is called political science comprising numerous subfields namely comparative politics, international relations, and political philosophy. Comparative politics is the science of comparison teaching different types of constitutions, political actors, and legislatures. International relations deals with interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political philosophy focuses on contributions from various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Primary sources such as historical documents and official records are used alongside secondary sources like scholarly journal articles. Survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building are common techniques employed by researchers. Lucian Pye defined political culture as the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments giving order and meaning to a political process. Trust determines the capacity of the state to function effectively within any given society. Postmaterialism measures the degree to which a political culture concerns issues not of immediate physical or material concern. Religion also has an impact on political culture influencing how citizens interact with their government systems.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the English word politics?
The English word politics has its roots in Aristotle's classic work titled Politiká. This composition was rendered in Early Modern English as The book of Politics during the mid-15th century before evolving into the modern term.
When did early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt define their actual borders?
Early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their actual borders around approximately 3000 BC. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River with boundaries stretching to areas where oases existed, while early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia.
Why is the Peace of Westphalia considered the beginning of the modern international system?
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 established that external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs entirely. Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel laid out this principle of non-interference during the mid-18th century, making states the primary institutional agents within an interstate system of relations.
How are forms of government classified by structure and source of authority?
Forms of government include monarchies such as constitutional monarchies and republics which are usually presidential or parliamentary. Federations were formed first in Switzerland then in the United States in 1776, followed by Canada in 1867, Germany in 1871, and Australia in 1901.
What defines the left-right political spectrum dating from the French Revolution?
Members of the National Assembly who supported the republic sat on the left while supporters of monarchy sat on the right during the French Revolution. Today the left generally seeks social progress through reformist approaches like social democracy, whereas the right is motivated by conservatism seeking to conserve elements like law and order.