Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire began as a single beylik, a small principality founded around 1299 in northwestern Anatolia by a Turkoman tribal leader named Osman I. From that obscure frontier holding, his successors built a state that stretched across Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa. By the end of Suleiman the Magnificent's reign it covered roughly 877,888 square miles across three continents. It lasted into the early 20th century, with its sultanate abolished in 1922. How did a petty kingdom on the edge of the Byzantine world come to sit at the center of Middle Eastern and European interaction for six centuries? Why did contemporaries compare it to the Roman Empire, and what finally pulled it apart? This is the story of how Osman's name became the word Ottoman, and how a confederacy of tribesmen and Byzantine renegades grew into one of history's longest-ruling dynasties.
Osman I extended his small principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River, and a Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 contributed to his rise. His early followers were a mix of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all of them converts to Islam. Because so few sources survive, historians do not fully understand how these early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours. The Ghaza thesis, popular in the 20th century, credited their success to rallying religious warriors in the name of Islam, but it is no longer generally accepted, and no rival hypothesis has won broad agreement.
Osman's son Orhan captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital. Expansion into the Balkans followed across the mid-14th century. The port of Thessaloniki was taken from the Venetians in 1387 and sacked, and the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively ended Serbian power in the region. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to halt the advance.
In 1402, the Turco-Mongol leader Timur invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. At the Battle of Ankara that year he defeated the Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I prisoner, throwing the empire into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413. Mehmed I eventually emerged as sultan and restored Ottoman power. Murad II later recovered lost Balkan territories between the 1430s and 1450s, repelling the Crusade of Varna at the Battle of Varna on the 10th of November 1444 against forces led by Wladyslaw III of Poland and John Hunyadi. Some 21st-century historians tie this rapid advance to the Black Death, which left Byzantine lands demographically exhausted and easier to conquer.
On the 29th of May 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror took Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. He allowed the Eastern Orthodox Church to keep its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority, and much of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule. Control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia let the empire flourish economically.
Selim I, who ruled from 1512 to 1520, dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers. He defeated Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran at the Battle of Chaldiran, then annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. With these conquests the sultans claimed the title of caliph, leaders of Muslims worldwide.
Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566, captured Belgrade in 1521 and won the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, establishing Ottoman rule across present-day Hungary. He laid siege to Vienna in 1529 but failed to take the city, and was repulsed again at the siege of Guns in 1532. In the east the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535. United against Habsburg rule, France and the Ottoman Empire became allies; the conquests of Nice in 1543 and Corsica in 1553 were joint ventures commanded by the Ottoman admirals Hayreddin Barbarossa and Dragut. Suleiman died of natural causes during the siege of Szigetvar in 1566. By then contemporaries such as the Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French philosopher Jean Bodin were comparing Ottoman success to the Roman Empire.
Around the year 1600, inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare placed great strain on the Ottoman system of government, with the empire's population reaching 30 million people. Historians once called this period one of stagnation and decline, but most academics now reject that view, pointing instead to institutions that adapted and kept the empire militarily and economically powerful into the 17th century.
The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 let Western European states bypass the Ottoman trade monopoly, yet Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo in particular benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee, becoming a major center for its trade as coffeehouses spread across the empire's cities and towns.
In 1571 the Ottomans besieged Venetian Cyprus, where 50,000 Christians died at Nicosia and 180,000 were enslaved, and Famagusta fell after holding out for 11 months. That same year the Holy League destroyed 200 Ottoman ships at the Battle of Lepanto off southwestern Greece, a startling if mostly symbolic blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. The navy recovered quickly, since lost ships were replaced faster than experienced manpower. During the Sultanate of Women, dated from 1533 to 1656, imperial mothers and consorts such as Hurrem Sultan, Kosem Sultan, and Turhan Hatice held significant political power, a rivalry that ended with Kosem's murder in 1651.
In 1683, Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to a second Ottoman siege of Vienna. The final assault was fatally delayed, and allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces, spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski, swept the Ottomans away at the Battle of Vienna. The Treaty of Karlowitz on the 26th of January 1699 ended the Great Turkish War and surrendered significant territories, many of them permanently. Modern academic consensus marks this 1683 defeat as the point where the empire began to decline, though it kept a flexible economy and strong military well into the 18th century.
King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally after his defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, and he persuaded Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which brought an Ottoman victory in the Pruth River Campaign of 1710 to 1711. Educational and technological reforms followed. Ibrahim Muteferrika won permission from Sultan Ahmed III to publish non-religious books, and his press issued its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, produced 17 works in 23 volumes.
Reform met fierce resistance. Selim III made the first major attempts to modernise the army from 1789, but the religious leadership and the Janissary corps opposed him, and the revolt cost him his throne and his life. His successor Mahmud II eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826. The Serbian revolution from 1804 to 1815 began an era of national awakening in the Balkans, and Greece achieved independence in 1829. In 1830 the French invaded the Deylik of Algiers in a campaign that took 21 days.
By the mid-19th century the Ottoman Empire was called the sick man of Europe. During the Tanzimat period, from 1839 to 1876, constitutional reforms produced a conscripted army, banking reforms, the replacement of religious law with secular law, and the decriminalisation of homosexuality. American inventor Samuel Morse received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan Abdulmecid, who personally tested the invention.
The empire's Christian population pulled ahead of the Muslim majority through higher education. In 1861 there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils, and by 1911, of 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. The historian Eugene Rogan has written that the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East in the 19th century was not the armies of Europe but its banks. Having taken on debt with the Crimean War, the Ottoman state declared bankruptcy in 1875, and by 1881 its debt was controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men.
Violence accompanied this contraction. Bashi-bazouks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people, and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878 ended in decisive Russian victory and sharp losses in Europe. From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians were killed in the Hamidian massacres. As the empire shrank, 7 to 9 million Muslims migrated from former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and Mediterranean islands into Anatolia and Eastern Thrace.
The Young Turk Revolution restored the constitution and brought multi-party politics under the Ottoman parliament, a moment of hope and promise. Among the new parties were the Committee of Union and Progress and the Freedom and Accord Party, alongside ethnic movements such as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The empire then lost its North African territories in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911 and nearly all its European lands in the Balkan Wars of 1912 to 1913.
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers. Its participation began with a combined German-Ottoman surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of the Russian Empire on the 29th of October 1914. The Ottomans defended the Dardanelles during the Gallipoli campaign and won early victories in Mesopotamia, including the Siege of Kut. The Arab Revolt, officially initiated at Mecca on the 10th of June 1916 with British support, turned the tide in the Middle East. Its aim was a single Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden, but the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement instead partitioned the region into British and French mandates.
In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes began the extermination of the Armenian population, killing up to 1.5 million people in the Armenian genocide. It was carried out in two phases: the killing of able-bodied men, followed by death marches of women, children, and the elderly toward the Syrian desert. Large-scale massacres were also committed against the empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign.
The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on the 30th of October 1918, and Istanbul was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919 Greece took control of the area around Smyrna, now Izmir. The partition was finalised under the 1920 Treaty of Sevres, which still allowed the sultan to keep his position and title.
A nationalist opposition arose in the Turkish national movement and won the Turkish War of Independence under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, later given the surname Ataturk. The sultanate was abolished on the 1st of November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI, left the country on the 17th of November 1922. He was a direct male-line descendant of the first sultan, Osman I, an unbroken patrilineal succession unparalleled in both Europe and the Islamic world.
The Republic of Turkey was established on the 29th of October 1923, with its new capital at Ankara, and the caliphate was abolished on the 3rd of March 1924. The Ankara-based government had already settled the empire's name between 1920 and 1923, choosing Turkey as the sole official name and ending the old interchange of Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire, and Turkey. The word Rumi, meaning Roman, had once been how an educated Turkish speaker described himself, a small reminder of how deeply this state had grown from the territory of the Byzantine world it replaced.
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Common questions
When did the Ottoman Empire exist and where was it founded?
The Ottoman Empire emerged from a beylik founded around 1299 in northwestern Anatolia by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. It lasted from the 14th century to the early 20th century, with the sultanate abolished in 1922.
Who conquered Constantinople for the Ottoman Empire?
Mehmed the Conqueror took Constantinople on the 29th of May 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire. He allowed the Eastern Orthodox Church to keep its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.
When did the Ottoman Empire reach its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent?
The Ottoman Empire became a major power during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent from 1520 to 1566. By the end of his reign the empire spanned approximately 877,888 square miles across three continents.
Why did the Ottoman Empire begin to decline?
Modern academic consensus marks the empire's defeat at the second siege of Vienna in 1683 as the point where decline began. It still maintained a flexible economy and strong military into much of the 18th century before falling behind Europe technologically.
What was the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire?
In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes began exterminating the empire's Armenian population, killing up to 1.5 million people. It was carried out in two phases, the killing of able-bodied men followed by death marches of women, children, and the elderly toward the Syrian desert.
How did the Ottoman Empire end?
The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on the 30th of October 1918 and was occupied and partitioned by the Allied Powers. The Turkish War of Independence under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk led to the abolition of the sultanate on the 1st of November 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was established on the 29th of October 1923.
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- 207Servile Labor in the Ottoman EmpireHalil Inalcik — Michigan State University
- 210BookMemory and Commemoration across Central AsiaJaimee Comstock-Skipp — Brill — 2023
- 214BookThe sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402–1413Dimitris J. Kastritsis — Brill — 2007
- 215BookOsmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültürMurat Belge — İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları — 2005
- 216BookNeither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literatureLaurent Mignon — ISIS — 2005
- 217BookEncyclopedia of the Ottoman EmpireBruce Masters et al. — Facts On File — 2009
- 218BookImagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalismGönül Pultar — Syracuse University Press — 2013
- 219BookTradition, Tension, and Translation in TurkeyŞehnaz Gürçaglar et al. — John Benjamins Publishing Company — 2015
- 220BookTürk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1Berna Moran — İletişim Yayınları — 1997
- 221Francophone press in the Ottoman EmpireBaruh, Lorans Tanatar — French National Library
- 224BookThe Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and ArchitectureOxford University Press — 2009
- 225Freely (2011) p. 35Freely — 2011
- 226BookSinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values TodayGodfrey Goodwin — Saqi Books — 1993
- 228BookIznik PotteryJohn Carswell — British Museum Press — 2006
- 229BookGrove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume SetBloom et al. — Oxford University Press — 2009
- 230JournalOttoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed IIEsin Atil — 1973
- 231BookSubjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman EmpireSuraiya Faroqhi — I.B. Tauris — 2005
- 232Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow playAll About Turkey — 20 November 2006
- 233Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow TheatreEmin Şenyer — Karagoz.net
- 234JournalAli Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican RevolutionsF. J. Ragep — Science History Publications Ltd. — 2005
- 235Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western culturesSevim Tekeli — Kluwer — 1997
- 236BookIslamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the MaghrebKhaled El-Rouayheb — Cambridge University Press — 2015
- 237Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey?27 April 2017
- 238JournalFirst illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin SabuncuogluG. Bademci — 2006
- 239Ottoman EmpireHistory — 3 November 2017
- 240BookBetween Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870Jean Batou — Librairie Droz — 1991