Mass media

• 1. Origins And Evolution

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  The first dated print book known as the Diamond Sutra appeared in China in 868 AD. Movable clay type followed in 1041, yet early printed mass media likely emerged from European popular prints around 1400. Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press allowed the mass production of books to sweep nations starting in 1453. He printed a Latin Bible on a press with movable type that same year. Books remained too expensive to be called a true mass medium for at least a century after that development. Newspapers developed from about 1612, with the first English example appearing in 1620. The first high-circulation newspapers arose in London during the early 1800s. These publications were made possible by the invention of the high-speed rotary steam printing press and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas. The phrase "the media" began to be used in the 1920s. The notion of "mass media" was generally restricted to print media up until the post-Second World War era. Radio, television and video were introduced after that conflict ended. Audio-visual facilities became very popular because they provided both information and entertainment. The colour and sound engaged viewers and listeners more effectively than text alone.

• 2. Technological Classifications

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  In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight distinct industries including books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. By the early 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" came into use. Print media emerged in the late 15th century while recordings appeared in the late 19th century. Cinema arrived around 1900 and radio followed circa 1910. Television developed approximately in 1950 with the Internet emerging around 1990. Mobile phones became a mass medium only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media. Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University. These include technical and institutional methods of production and distribution alongside the commodification of symbolic forms. Information distribution operates as a one-to-many form whereby products are mass-produced and disseminated to large audiences. Broadcast media includes radio and television programs while digital media encompasses the Internet and mobile devices. Webcasting occurs when broadcasting is done via the Internet. Podcasting emerged as a new phenomenon in 2004 when several technologies combined.

• 3. Corporate Consolidation

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  Between 1985 and 2018, about 76,720 deals have been announced in the media industry. This sums up to an overall value of around US$5,634 billion. There have been three major waves of mergers and acquisitions in the mass media sector during 2000, 2007 and 2015. The most active year in terms of numbers was 2007 with around 3,808 deals. The United States is the most prominent country in media mergers with 41 of the top 50 deals having an acquirer from that nation. The largest deal in history involved the acquisition of Time Warner by AOL Inc for US$164,746.86 million. In 2012, an article asserted that 90 percent of US mass media were owned by six major companies including GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner and CBS. Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership. Many media industries are already highly concentrated and dominated by a small number of firms. Some consider this concentration of media ownership to be a threat to democracy. Mass media is often controlled by media conglomerates which may include mass media organisations, companies, and networks.

• 4. Societal Influence Mechanisms

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  In 1997, J. R. Finnegan Jr. and K. Viswanath identified three main effects or functions of mass media. The first effect involves knowledge gaps due to factors including the extent to which content is appealing and the degree to which information channels are accessible. Agenda setting occurs when people are influenced in how they think about issues due to the selective nature of what media groups choose for public consumption. J. J. Davis states that when risks are highlighted in the media, particularly in great detail, the extent of agenda setting is likely based on the degree to which a public sense of outrage and threat is provoked. Cultivation describes the extent to which media exposure shapes audience perceptions over time. Television is a common experience especially in places like the United States to the point where it can be described as a homogenising agent. Having a prolonged exposure to TV or movie violence might affect a viewer to the extent where they actively think community violence is a problem. Since the 1950s, cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary source of information for most of the population. These media became central instruments of mass control during that period. When a country reaches a high level of industrialisation, the country itself belongs to the person who controls communications.

• 5. Ethical Controversies

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  Mass media sources through framing and agenda-setting can affect the impact of a story as particular facts and information can be highlighted. This can correlate with how individuals perceive certain groups of people since media coverage may not reflect the whole story. Stories are often covered to reflect a particular perspective sometimes to target a specific demographic. Mass media as well as propaganda can reinforce or introduce stereotypes to the general public. One example involves how mass media has played a large role in the way white Americans perceive African Americans. Historical media focus on African Americans in contexts of crime, drug use, gang violence and other forms of anti-social behavior has resulted in distorted and harmful public perception. In his article "Mass Media and Racism", Stephen Balkaran states that the media has played a key role in perpetuating effects of historical oppression. A magazine feature from Beauty Parade from 1952 stereotyped women drivers while featuring Bettie Page. An American political cartoon titled The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things depicted a drunken Irishman lighting a powder keg and swinging a bottle for Harper's Weekly in 1871. Limited-effects theory theorizes that because people usually choose what media to interact with based on what they already believe, media exerts negligible influence.

• 6. Modern Paradigm Shifts

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  Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have exposure on a scale comparable to mass media. Forms of internet media include blogs, microblogs, RSS feeds, and podcasts. Social media is a large contributor to change from traditional mass media to new paradigms. Through social media what is mass communication and what is interpersonal communication becomes confused. Theorist Lance Bennett explains excluding major events it is uncommon for a group big enough to be labeled a mass to watch the same news via the same medium. Today it is more common for groups to receive different news stories from completely different sources. As discussed above filters would have been applied to original mass medias when journalists decided what would or would not be printed. Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of concentration of media ownership with many industries dominated by small firms. The Hallin and Mancini media model no longer fully aligns with today's media ecosystem while digital journalism adapts standards to audience preferences. Since the 1950s countries reaching high industrialisation levels saw cinema radio and TV become key political power instruments. Media bias can be assessed in comparison to the median voter.