City
A city is a human settlement of substantial size, yet the term carries different meanings across the globe. In some places, a settlement as small as 1,500 people may be classified as a city, while other jurisdictions require populations exceeding 50,000 inhabitants. The United Nations Demographic Yearbook from 2015 notes that population thresholds for urban areas range widely depending on local laws and historical context. Some countries set no official criteria at all, leaving definitions to national censuses that invoke factors like population density, number of dwellings, or economic function. A narrower definition describes a city as a permanent, densely populated place with administratively defined boundaries where members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. This functional distinction separates cities from villages or tribes, which often rely on informal agreements between neighbors rather than professional administrators and taxation systems. Even within this framework, the presence of a literate elite is frequently associated with cities due to their cultural diversities. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for larger surrounding areas, creating a complex web of interaction between government organizations and businesses.
Archaeologists identify Jericho and Çatalhöyük, dated to the eighth millennium BC, as among the earliest proto-cities known to human history. Most scholars consider the Mesopotamian city of Uruk from the mid-fourth millennium BC to be the first true city, innovating characteristics that would follow in later civilizations. In the fourth and third millennium BC, complex societies flourished in river valleys across Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt. Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley civilization, existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest early cities with a population exceeding 50,000 and a sophisticated sanitation system. Ancient Egyptian sites like El Lahun and Amarna appear planned in highly regimented fashion, featuring minimalistic worker housing alongside elaborate structures for higher classes. Rome became the first city to surpass one million inhabitants, transforming urban architecture and design principles under its empire. The Norte Chico civilization in Peru, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC, included up to 30 major population centers and represents the oldest known civilization in the Americas. Mesoamerica saw early urbanism rise through cultures including the Olmec, Preclassic Maya, Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. West Africa developed urban centers such as Dhar Tichitt around 1600 BC and Jenné-Jeno by the third century BCE, which lacked monumental architecture but functioned as specialized production hubs.
Cities typically follow one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear forms shaped by natural constraints and human design. Dutch cities like Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as central squares surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion phase. Moscow retains visible traces of this radial pattern with main roads converging on a central point. The grid plan system has been used for millennia across Asia, Europe, and the Americas, exemplified by Mohenjo-daro and Harappa built according to ancient principles described by Kautilya. Ancient Greek Priene demonstrates a grid plan with specialized districts used throughout the Hellenistic Mediterranean. Urban areas extend far beyond traditional boundaries into suburbs and exurbs organized around commuter needs, sometimes forming continuous landscapes called megalopolises like the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States. The Indus Valley Civilization built cities on grids aligned with compass points, while China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles acting as celestial microcosms. Modern urban planning involves optimizing land use, transportation, utilities, and other systems through tools like zoning laws and public capital investment in infrastructure. Zoning controls building size, structure use intensity, and protects public health and safety while preserving taxable property values. Government legally holds final authority over planning decisions, though practical implementation often involves both public and private elements working together.
Local city governments take various forms including municipalities in England and the United States, communes in France and Chile, or municipios in Spain and Portugal. The mayor typically acts as figurehead or personification of city leadership, often associated with political parties yet sometimes speaking for their city outside mainstream national politics. Cities provide municipal services such as education through school systems, policing via police departments, and firefighting through fire brigades. Traditional municipal finance relies on local property tax levied on real estate within city limits, supplemented by revenue from leasing owned land or selling assets into the private sector. Cities increasingly resort to municipal bonds essentially functioning as loans with interest and repayment dates when seeking ready cash. Tax increment financing allows development projects to be funded by loans based on future expected tax revenues. Deindustrialized cities face acute financial challenges where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved beyond taxation reach. Neoliberal governance models privatize public utilities, deregulate industries, and grant corporations governing actor status through public-private partnerships. International organizations consider existing governments inadequate for large emergent megacities, promoting concepts like good governance emphasizing participation, accountability, transparency, equity, efficiency, effectiveness, responsiveness, and rule of law. Bogotá has been presented as a model city due to rapid improvements in fiscal responsibility, public service provision, infrastructure, civic pride, and administrative honesty.
Megacities defined here as cities with more than 8 million people have proliferated into dozens arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Only New York and London qualified as megacities fifty years ago but by 1990 just over ten existed with fifteen located in less economically developed regions. By 2000 the number increased to twenty-six again except six located in less developed world regions. Estimates project eighty-seven megacities will exist by 2025 according to United Nations data from 2012. Globalization processes drive enormous changes and economic developments over recent decades particularly China's socialism with Chinese characteristics starting under Deng Xiaoping in 1978/1979 and India's New Economic Policy beginning in 1991. These reforms led to enormous influxes of foreign direct investments intensive industrialization processes international relocation production locations partial expansion services sector increasing office space demand reorientation national support policies transnationally acting conglomerates considerable transfer payments overseas communities flanked massive migration movements national and international migrants into megacities. A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities usually containing super-wealthy elites living in gated communities alongside large masses inhabiting substandard housing inadequate infrastructure otherwise poor conditions. Cities around the world expanded physically growing population increases surface extent creation high-rise buildings residential commercial use development underground. Urbanization creates rapid demand water resources management formerly good freshwater sources become overused polluted volume sewage exceeds manageable levels.
Common questions
What is the definition of a city according to the United Nations Demographic Yearbook from 2015?
The United Nations Demographic Yearbook from 2015 notes that population thresholds for urban areas range widely depending on local laws and historical context. Some countries set no official criteria at all, leaving definitions to national censuses that invoke factors like population density, number of dwellings, or economic function.
Which ancient site do most scholars consider the first true city in human history?
Most scholars consider the Mesopotamian city of Uruk from the mid-fourth millennium BC to be the first true city. This settlement innovated characteristics that would follow in later civilizations including complex societies flourishing in river valleys across Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt during the fourth and third millennium BC.
How did the Indus Valley Civilization build cities regarding alignment and planning principles?
The Indus Valley Civilization built cities on grids aligned with compass points while China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles acting as celestial microcosms. Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley civilization existed from about 2600 BC and was one of the largest early cities with a population exceeding 50,000 and a sophisticated sanitation system.
What are the primary sources of municipal finance used by cities today?
Traditional municipal finance relies on local property tax levied on real estate within city limits supplemented by revenue from leasing owned land or selling assets into the private sector. Cities increasingly resort to municipal bonds essentially functioning as loans with interest and repayment dates when seeking ready cash and use tax increment financing to fund development projects based on future expected tax revenues.
When will there be an estimated eighty-seven megacities existing globally according to United Nations data from 2012?
Estimates project eighty-seven megacities will exist by 2025 according to United Nations data from 2012. Megacities defined here as cities with more than 8 million people have proliferated into dozens arising especially in Asia Africa and Latin America driven by globalization processes and economic developments over recent decades.