Short answers, pulled from the story.
The English word politics has its roots in Aristotle's classic work titled Politiká. This composition was rendered in Early Modern English as The book of Politics during the mid-15th century before evolving into the modern term.
Early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their actual borders around approximately 3000 BC. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River with boundaries stretching to areas where oases existed, while early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia.
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 established that external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs entirely. Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel laid out this principle of non-interference during the mid-18th century, making states the primary institutional agents within an interstate system of relations.
Forms of government include monarchies such as constitutional monarchies and republics which are usually presidential or parliamentary. Federations were formed first in Switzerland then in the United States in 1776, followed by Canada in 1867, Germany in 1871, and Australia in 1901.
Members of the National Assembly who supported the republic sat on the left while supporters of monarchy sat on the right during the French Revolution. Today the left generally seeks social progress through reformist approaches like social democracy, whereas the right is motivated by conservatism seeking to conserve elements like law and order.