Ritual
The English word ritual derives from the Latin ritualis, meaning that which pertains to rite. In Roman juridical and religious usage, ritus was the proven way of doing something or correct performance. The original concept may be related to the Sanskrit term rita, visible order in Vedic religion. This ancient word described the lawful and regular structure of cosmic, worldly, human, and ritual events. The word ritual first appeared in English records in 1570. It came into common use during the 1600s to mean the prescribed order of performing religious services. Later definitions expanded to include any book containing these prescriptions for worship.
Rituals are repeated, structured sequences of actions that alter internal or external states regardless of conscious understanding. Catherine Bell argues that rituals can be characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance. Maurice Bloch describes how ritual uses a limited and rigidly organized set of expressions called a restricted code. This style limits intonation, syntax, vocabulary, loudness, and fixity of order. Ritual leaders' speech becomes more about style than content because this formal speech induces acceptance or compliance with regard to any overt challenge. Such communication makes rebellion impossible and revolution the only feasible alternative. Traditionalism varies from formalism as the ritual may not be formal yet still appeals to historical precedent. An example is the American Thanksgiving dinner which may not be formal but is ostensibly based on an event from the early Puritan settlement of America. Historians Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger argued that many such traditions were invented in the late nineteenth century to revive earlier forms like medieval customs that had been discontinued.
Nineteenth-century armchair anthropologists focused on how religion originated in human history. Twentieth-century scholars shifted focus to what these beliefs and practices did for societies regardless of origin. Bronislaw Malinowski used function to address individual psychological needs regarding anxiety. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown looked for the purpose of institutions in preserving society as a whole. Malinowski argued that ritual was a non-technical means of addressing anxiety where dangerous elements were beyond technical control. He stated magic appears whenever man comes to an unbridgeable gap in knowledge yet must continue his pursuit. Radcliffe-Brown saw ritual as an expression of common interest symbolically representing a community. Anxiety was felt only if the ritual was not performed. George C. Homans resolved opposing theories by differentiating between primary anxieties felt by people lacking techniques and secondary anxiety felt by those who have not performed rites correctly. Later neofunctional theorists examined ways ritual regulated larger ecological systems. Roy Rappaport studied gift exchanges of pigs between tribal groups in Papua New Guinea which maintained environmental balance. J. Stephen Lansing traced how intricate calendars of Hindu Balinese rituals served to regulate vast irrigation systems ensuring optimum water distribution while limiting disputes.
Claude Lévi-Strauss regarded all social and cultural organization as symbolic systems shaped by inherent brain structure. He argued symbol systems are imposed on social relations to organize them rather than reflecting existing structures. Lévi-Strauss viewed myth and ritual as complementary symbol systems, one verbal and one non-verbal. Clifford Geertz expanded on the symbolic approach arguing religious symbol systems provided both a model of reality and a model for reality. Ritual brings these two aspects together generating conviction that religious conceptions are veridical. Symbolic anthropologists analyze rituals as language-like codes interpreted independently as cultural systems. Geertz rejected Functionalism arguments claiming ritual describes social order. Instead he argued ritual actively shapes that social order and imposes meaning on disordered experience. Maurice Bloch argued ritual communication uses special restricted vocabulary making utterances very predictable. The restrictive syntax reduces ability to make propositional arguments leaving speakers with utterances that cannot be contradicted such as I do thee wed in a wedding. Thomas Csordas analyzes how ritual language can be used to innovate through shared performative elements called genres.
The Sumerians used term Me to refer to rituals later equated with parshu in Akkadian language by Babylonians and Assyrians. In Mesopotamia these rituals were considered property of gods known only to kings and religious experts. Ancient perspective held gods themselves could perform rituals or acquire them from other gods to increase power. Christianity uses rite to refer to sacred ceremonies like anointing of the sick which may carry status of sacrament depending on denomination. Roman Catholicism considers anointing of the sick a sacrament while Lutheranism does not. Daily prayers for practicing Muslims require ritual recitation from Quran in Arabic while bowing and prostrating. Quranic chapter 2 prescribes direction to face for prayers pilgrimage and fasting in Ramadan. Hajj rituals include circumambulation around Kaaba showing rites of God. Freemasonry employs scripted words and actions using Masonic symbolism to illustrate principles espoused by members. Degrees derive from three grades of medieval craft guilds including Entered Apprentice Journeyman and Master Mason. North American Freemasons raised to degree of Master Mason have option joining appendant bodies offering additional degrees such as Scottish Rite or York Rite.
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Common questions
When did the word ritual first appear in English records?
The word ritual first appeared in English records in 1570. It came into common use during the 1600s to mean the prescribed order of performing religious services.
What are the three stages of a rite of passage according to Arnold van Gennep?
Arnold van Gennep stated that rites of passage are marked by three stages: separation, transition, and incorporation. Separation occurs wherein initiates are separated from their old identities through physical and symbolic means while the transition stage places initiated individuals betwixt and between.
How did Bronislaw Malinowski define the function of ritual regarding anxiety?
Bronislaw Malinowski argued that ritual was a non-technical means of addressing anxiety where dangerous elements were beyond technical control. He stated magic appears whenever man comes to an unbridgeable gap in knowledge yet must continue his pursuit.
Who described liminality as a condition of ambiguity or disorientation in rituals?
Victor Turner argued that the transition phase is marked by liminality which describes a condition of ambiguity or disorientation where initiates have been stripped of old identities but have not yet acquired new ones.
Which ancient civilization used the term Me to refer to rituals later equated with parshu?
The Sumerians used the term Me to refer to rituals later equated with parshu in Akkadian language by Babylonians and Assyrians. In Mesopotamia these rituals were considered property of gods known only to kings and religious experts.