Mulasarvastivada
The Mulasarvastivada school emerged in India during the 2nd century CE, though its exact birth remains shrouded in uncertainty. Modern scholars classify it as an independent entity from the Sarvastivada school, despite ancient claims suggesting otherwise. Yijing, a Chinese monk who traveled to India, argued that the name derived from being an offshoot of Sarvastivada. Buton Rinchen Drub countered this view by stating the name honored Sarvastivada as the root of all Buddhist schools. Gregory Schopen places the development firmly within the 2nd century CE and notes its decline in India by the 7th century. Academics have proposed various theories regarding how these two groups relate, yet no consensus exists today.
Missionary activities carried the Mulasarvastivada presence across Central Asia during early centuries. Scholars identify three distinct major phases of missionary activity associated with specific sects over time. The Dharmaguptaka appeared first, followed by the Sarvastivada, and finally the Mulasarvastivada. These movements spread monastic rules and teachings throughout regions now known as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan. The school maintained influence where trade routes connected India with China and Persia. Monks traveling these paths carried texts and established communities that preserved their unique Vinaya traditions for generations.
At the end of the 7th century, Buddhist monks in Champa generally belonged to either the Sammitiya Nikaya or the Mulasarvastivada Nikaya. Adherents of the latter group pulled up their robes on both sides, threading the ends through a belt and hanging them over it. Yijing documented this distinctive practice while observing life in Southeast Asian kingdoms. In the kingdom of Srivijaya, located in modern-day Sumatra, Indonesia, the Mulasarvastivada were prominent throughout the 7th century. Yijing stayed there for six to seven years, studying Sanskrit and translating texts into Chinese. He noted that subjects studied, along with rules and ceremonies, remained essentially the same as those found in India. The islands he visited held Hīnayāna orientations, though some areas like the Melayu Kingdom included Mahayana teachings such as Asanga's Yogacarabhumi Sastra.
Kukai founded the Shingon lineage in Japan during the early 9th century. Historical records indicate Kukai required his students to study the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya specifically. This requirement ensured that Japanese monastic training followed a particular set of disciplinary codes distinct from other traditions. The transmission of these texts allowed the school to take root within Japanese Buddhist institutions despite geographical distance from its Indian origins. Kukai's insistence on this specific lineage demonstrates how far-reaching influence extended beyond Central Asia and Southeast Asia into East Asia.
The Tibetan Emperor Ralpachen restricted Buddhist ordination to the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya tradition. This decision solidified the school's dominance in Tibet after Buddhism was introduced to Mongolia from Tibet. Mongolian ordination follows this rule today, maintaining continuity with ancient practices. The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya exists in three forms: a 9th-century translation into Tibetan, an 8th-century translation into Chinese, and fragments of the original Sanskrit text. These translations preserved the monastic code through centuries of political change and religious evolution across the Himalayas and Central Asian steppes.
On the 23rd of June 2022, Bhutan hosted an official ceremony where 144 women received full ordination as bhikshunis. This event marked the first time in modern history that such ordinations occurred within Bhutanese borders. Previously, bhikshuni ordinations were administered only in Taiwan and later at Bodh Gaya, India. Venerable Thubten Choedron documented international efforts toward full ordination ceremonies held in Bodh Gaya on the 23rd of February 1998. Damcho Diana Finnegan and Carola Roloff reported on the significance of the Bhutanese ceremony for Lion's Roar magazine. The revival ended centuries of absence regarding female monastic status within the Mulasarvastivada tradition.
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Common questions
When did the Mulasarvastivada school emerge in India?
The Mulasarvastivada school emerged in India during the 2nd century CE. Gregory Schopen places the development firmly within this period and notes its decline in India by the 7th century.
Where did the Mulasarvastivada presence spread across Central Asia?
Missionary activities carried the Mulasarvastivada presence to regions now known as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan. These movements spread monastic rules and teachings throughout areas where trade routes connected India with China and Persia.
What distinctive practice did Mulasarvastivada monks follow regarding their robes?
Adherents of the Mulasarvastivada Nikaya pulled up their robes on both sides, threading the ends through a belt and hanging them over it. Yijing documented this distinctive practice while observing life in Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Srivijaya.
How did Kukai influence Japanese Buddhist institutions with the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya?
Kukai founded the Shingon lineage in Japan during the early 9th century and required his students to study the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya specifically. This requirement ensured that Japanese monastic training followed a particular set of disciplinary codes distinct from other traditions.
Which translation forms preserve the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya today?
The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya exists in three forms: a 9th-century translation into Tibetan, an 8th-century translation into Chinese, and fragments of the original Sanskrit text. These translations preserved the monastic code through centuries of political change and religious evolution across the Himalayas and Central Asian steppes.
When did Bhutan host its first modern full ordination ceremony for women within the Mulasarvastivada tradition?
On the 23rd of June 2022, Bhutan hosted an official ceremony where 144 women received full ordination as bhikshunis. This event marked the first time in modern history that such ordinations occurred within Bhutanese borders.