Buddhist deities

• 1. Introduction

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  Buddhist deities span a range from fully awakened beings called Buddhas to nature spirits and local gods. The religion absorbed figures from every culture it entered. Early Buddhism brought in Indian figures: devas, asuras, and yaksha spirits whose worship predated the Vedic period. As Buddhism spread to Burma, Japan, Tibet, and China, it kept incorporating new beings. Buddhist thinkers developed theological frameworks for all of them. Questions about which beings deserved veneration, and at what level of awakening they stood, organized the entire system. What distinguished a being in a heavenly pure land from a local spirit worshipped at the margins? And how did a religion rooted in ancient India come to include Taoist gods and Burmese nature spirits among its venerated figures?

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• 2. The Awakened Ones

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  Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha, is recognized in the Theravada tradition as the only awakened being of our current era. The Pali literature of Theravada lists a total of twenty-nine Buddhas. That figure includes Sakyamuni and the twenty-eight Buddhas who came before him. In Theravada, Sakyamuni is not generally seen as accessible from a higher plane of existence. His teaching is the primary point of contact for practitioners.

  Amitabha, whose name means Infinite Light, presides over a pure land called Sukhavati, meaning the Blissful. This pure land is the central focus of devotion in Pure Land Buddhism. Practitioners aspire to be reborn there after death. Maitreya, the future Buddha of this world, is another major Mahayana figure. Both represent a distinctly Mahayana expansion of who counts as a Buddha.

  Five primary Buddhas are recognized across the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions. Each is associated with a specific direction, color, element, symbol, mount, and emotional aggregate. Vairocana, meaning the Illuminator, is the central Buddha in Huayan Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, and Shingon. His pure land is called the Padmagarbhalokadhatu, the lotus treasury world. Akshobhya, the Imperturbable, presides over a buddha-field called Abhirati, meaning the Joyous. Ratnasambhava means Jewel Born and Amoghasiddhi means Infallible Success.

  Tantric sources later paired each of the five male Buddhas with a specific female companion, called a prajna or vidya. Pandaravasini, the White Robed One, is associated with Amitabha. Tara, whose name translates as Star, is sometimes paired with Amoghasiddhi and sometimes with Amitabha. In Tibetan Buddhism, Tara is the most popular female Buddha and appears in many forms and colors. Other female Buddha figures in this tradition include Vajrayogini, Nairatmya, and Kurukulla.

  Bhaisajyaguru, the Buddha of medicine, stands outside the group of five primary Buddhas. The concept of the Adi-Buddha, the first ever to attain Buddhahood, also has a place in some traditions. This figure carries different names in different sources, including Vajradhara and Mahavairocana. It is connected to the Dharmakaya and to the Ground of all phenomena.

  Nagarjuna, the Buddhist philosopher, is sometimes called the second Buddha in certain traditions. Padmasambhava holds Buddha status in some traditions as well.

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• 3. Compassion on the Path

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  Bodhicitta, meaning the mind of awakening, is the defining quality of a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. Any being who had aroused this quality and was working toward full Buddhahood was recognized as a bodhisattva. Those seen as powerful and highly advanced were objects of great veneration. In the Theravada tradition, the term bodhisatta is used mainly for Sakyamuni before his awakening. Maitreya is the one major bodhisattva figure with a significant presence in Theravada as well.

  In India, a set known as the Eight Close Sons became the principal bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha's entourage. Manjushri, called Gentle Glory or Young Prince, was the bodhisattva of wisdom. Avalokitesvara, whose name means Lord who gazes down at the world, was the savior bodhisattva of great compassion. Vajrapani, meaning Vajra in hand, was the protector of the Buddha himself. Ksitigarbha, meaning Earth Source, was known as the savior of beings from hell. Akasagarbha, meaning Space Source, was associated with the element of space. Samantabhadra, meaning Universal Worthy, was associated with vows.

  Avalokitesvara, depicted as male in Indian Buddhist art, underwent a transformation in East Asian traditions. The figure became female in East Asia, known as Guanyin in Chinese and Kannon in Japanese. Guanyin became the most popular bodhisattva in the entire East Asian Buddhist world. The tradition holds that Guanyin takes on numerous manifestations, including Cundi and Cintamanicakra.

  Prajnaparamita-devi is the principal female bodhisattva in Indian sources. She is a personification of the perfection of wisdom and is widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art. The sutra called The Lion's Roar of Srimaladevī presents another female bodhisattva. Other female bodhisattvas named in Indian sources include Ushnishavijaya and Vasudhara.

  Guan Yu, venerated in Taoism as a god of war, was recognized in Chinese Buddhism as Sangharama Bodhisattva. In Chinese, this title is written as Qielan Pusa. Hachiman, a deity in Japanese religion, was venerated as the Bodhisattva Hachiman, written in Japanese as Hachiman Daibosatsu.

  In Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas are understood to be emanations of bodhisattvas. These reborn figures, called tulkus, are considered living expressions of bodhisattva compassion. Kukai is also venerated as a bodhisattva in the Shingon school of Japanese Buddhism. Running alongside this world of compassionate guides was a class of beings whose primary function was not awakening but defense of the teaching itself.

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• 4. Defenders of the Teaching

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  Dhrtarastra, the Guardian of the East, is one of four deities who protect the four directions of our world. These Four Heavenly Kings, also known as the Caturmaharaja or lokapalas, appear in the earliest Buddhist sources. They are shared across both Mahayana and Theravada traditions. Virudhaka, Guardian of the South, commands the kumbhandas and pretas. Virupaksha, Guardian of the West, commands the nagas and putanas. Vaisravana, Guardian of the North, commands the yakshas and rakshasas.

  In Mahayana Buddhism, the category of dharma protectors includes two distinct types. Mundane worldly protectors are devas or local spirits absorbed into the tradition. Supramundane protectors are bodhisattvas or Buddhas appearing in wrathful form to defend the Dharma. Figures in this second group include Yamantaka, Ekajati, Mahakala, Palden Lhamo, and Hayagriva.

  The Wisdom Kings, called Vidyaraja in Sanskrit, are venerated in East Asian Buddhism and in Vajrayana. Their aggressive and ferocious appearances signal their power to remove negative forces. This fierce look is understood as an expression of the Buddha's own compassion. In East Asian Buddhism, five primary Wisdom Kings are recognized as emanations of the Buddhas. They are Vajrayaksha, Acala, Trailokyavijaya, Kundali, and Yamantaka.

  Five protective goddesses, collectively called the Pancaraksha, form an important group in Mahayana Buddhism. Mahapratisara provides protection against defilements, disease, and evils. Mahasahasrapramardini guards against evil spirits. Mahamayuri, also called vidyarajni, protects against snake poison. Mahasitavati wards off cruel planets, cruel animals, and poisonous insects. Maharaksha mantranusarini defends against diseases.

  In Chinese Buddhism, a list of Twenty-Four Protective Deities is recognized, called the Ershisi Zhutian. This group blends Indian deities with figures from Taoism. Mahesvara, identified with Shiva, is among the Indian figures. The Taoist entries include Emperor Zi Wei, the Emperor Dongyue, and Leigong the Thunder God. Buddhism proved willing to include any being in its protective apparatus that a local tradition regarded as powerful enough to defend the sacred.

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• 5. Devas and Local Spirits

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  Deva, a Sanskrit word, literally means radiant one or shining one and is commonly translated as divinity, heavenly being, or god. The word shares an etymological connection with the English word divinity through its root meaning to shine. Devas live lives of far less suffering than humans and benefit from the merit earned in previous lives. But they are not immortal, not omniscient, and not creator gods. Their heavenly realms remain part of the cycle of rebirth called samsara.

  Buddhist cosmology identifies twenty-seven categories of devas, though some sources give twenty-six or twenty-eight. These categories are organized by dwelling place across three realms: the sensuous realm, the material or form realm, and the formless realm. Devas in the sensuous realm retain physical bodies and consume food. Those in higher realms subsist on subtler forms of nourishment, such as sensory contact or mental contemplation. The Brahma devas, the Trayastrimsa devas, the gandharvas, and the Tusita devas are among the most commonly discussed in Buddhist scriptures.

  Sakra, known as the lord of the devas, rules over the Heaven of the Thirty Three, called Trayatrimsa. He is the Buddhist counterpart of Indra from Indian religion. Brahma, Lakshmi, and Hariti are among the other Indian devas that early Buddhism incorporated into its framework.

  Yaksha spirits serve as caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and in tree roots and are generally regarded as benevolent. One important Indian yaksha was Kubera, the spirit of wealth. Nagas are a serpentine race of beings associated with protecting bodies of water. These beings are also connected in various traditions to the protection of the Mahayana sutras.

  In Burma, nature spirits called nats are worshipped alongside Buddhism. In Japan, Buddhists have traditionally venerated the local kami deities. Japanese Buddhism developed the honji suijaku theory, which identified Shinto gods with Buddhist deities. Under this approach, figures like Ugajin and Okuninushi were integrated into the Buddhist pantheon by being equated with Indian figures. That process of integration showed no signs of stopping as the tradition continued to spread and encounter new local spirits.

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• 6. The Personal and the Fierce

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  The yidam, also called the ishta-devata, is a personal meditation deity specific to tantric Buddhist practice. The Sanskrit scholar V.S. Apte defined the ishta-devata as a favorite god or one's tutelary deity. The Tibetan term yi-dam is understood as a contraction meaning samaya of mind. This phrase points to the state of being indestructibly bonded with the inherently pure nature of mind. This Tibetan term is possibly of entirely native origin. In Buddhism, a yidam may take the form of a Sambhogakaya Buddha, a tantric deity such as a dakini, or a bodhisattva. It may also appear as a dharma protector, or as a historical guru or religious leader.

  In the Buddhist Tantras, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas often manifest in fierce and unusual forms. These wrathful forms are used in tantric practice as yidams or meditation deities. Their ferocious appearances are not personifications of evil or demonic forces. That ferocity serves a specific purpose: to instill fear in the spirits that threaten the Dharma.

  Hayagriva, known in some traditions as a supramundane dharma protector, also appears among the Wisdom Kings in other sources. That dual listing is a small sign of something larger. The categories of Buddhist divinity were flexible enough to accommodate a being wherever the tradition found a need for one.

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