Shaivism
Archaeological seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation, dating to roughly 2500 BCE, depict a figure seated in a meditative yoga pose surrounded by animals. Early scholars labeled this artifact the Pashupati seal and interpreted it as a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as speculative because the script remains undeciphered and the figure's three faces or yoga posture are unclear. Other researchers suggest the image represents a seated bull rather than a human yogi. The Rigveda, composed between 1500 and 1200 BCE, contains the earliest clear mention of Rudra, an ambiguous god peripheral to the Vedic pantheon. This text includes the Satarudriya hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra that remain recited in major temples today. Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Aryan religions, Vedic Rudra worship, and post-Vedic traditions. The formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD. The earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the Pasupata movement in early centuries CE. Inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal, suggest that Shaivism was established there by the 5th century. During the Gupta Empire, which lasted from roughly 320 to 500 CE, the genre of Purāna literature developed extensively. Many of these texts contain chapters on Shaivism alongside Vaishnavism and other topics. Following Huna invasions circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire collapsed, discrediting the previously dominant Vaishnavism. Newly arising regional powers like the Aulikaras and Maitrakas preferred adopting Shaivism instead. By the 7th century, Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang wrote a memoir mentioning the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North India.
Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself. Some scholars describe this spectrum as dualistic theism while others call it monistic non-theism. The Yoga practice is particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, refined into methodologies like the four-fold upaya. These paths include being pathless, being divine through knowledge, being energy through action, and being individual. The Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta established influential ideas about Spanda that shaped subsequent traditions. Kashmiri Shaivism emerged as an influential tradition within Shaivism during the 1st millennium CE. This school posits absolute oneness where God exists within every being including all non-living matter. The Pratyabhijna philosophy developed by 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta became central to this framework. Unlike Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Shaiva monist schools consider Maya as Shakti or creative primordial power. Srikantha formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita theology stating the Self shares qualities with the Supreme but is not identical. Appayya Dikshita proposed pure monism influencing Shaiva thought in Karnataka regions. His doctrine remains inscribed on temple walls today. The Agama texts present diverse philosophies ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different while others state Oneness between them. No Agama that goes against Vedic literature has been acceptable to the Shaivas according to Mariasusai Dhavamony. The Bhairava Shastras are monistic while Shiva Shastras are dualistic. These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit and south Indian languages like Tamil.
The Pashupata sub-tradition represents the oldest heritage evidenced by ancient Hindu texts dated around the start of the common era. This monist tradition considers Shiva to be within oneself in every being observed. The path to liberation involves asceticism traditionally restricted to Brahmin males. Lakulisha from Gujarat circa 2nd century CE purportedly authored the foundational Pashupata-sutra text. The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva through a fivefold path starting with external practices evolving into internal meditation. The Lakula division departed radically from Vedic teachings respecting no social customs. They walked almost naked, drank liquor publicly, and used human skulls as begging bowls for food. However, they remained strictly celibate despite their unconventional appearance. The Mantramarga tradition grew from Atimarga to become dominant form of Shaivism during this period. It sought not just liberation but special powers called siddhi and pleasures known as bhoga. The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition dates from the 5th century and emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva using 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai. A key philosophical text composed by 13th-century Meykandar presents three universal realities: individual Self, lord Shiva, and bondage through ignorance. Lingayatism founded by 12th-century philosopher Basava constitutes a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India. Adherents wear an Ishtalinga necklace containing the linga symbol of Shiva. Large communities exist in Karnataka covering over 190,000 square kilometers representing about 20 percent of that state's population. The Nath movement emerged from older Siddha traditions based on Yoga tracing itself to 9th or 10th century Matsyendranath. Gorakshanath further developed ideas forming monastic organizations that sometimes metamorphosed into warrior ascetics resisting persecution.
The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation where divinely revealed mantras are given by a Guru. Ganachakras ritual feasts were held in cemeteries featuring possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis. Some traditions defined special powers differently including anima awareness present in everything and laghima freedom from presumed diversity. The Kashmiri tantrics explain these powers as mahima realizing one's limit beyond consciousness and prapti attaining restful peace with nature. The Pashupata path started near a Shiva temple then evolved through stages involving karma exchange and living like a loner in caves. Towards life's end practitioners moved to cremation grounds surviving on little while peacefully awaiting death. The Nayanars tradition of poet-saints developed in ancient Tamil Nadu during the 7th century focusing on Shiva. Their devotional poems divided into eleven collections known as Tirumurai became regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas. Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar composed the first seven collections called Tevaram in the 7th century. Yoga and meditation have been integral parts of Shaivism serving as major innovators of techniques such as Hatha Yoga. Many texts depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein he is a lone yogi meditating. The goal of yoga within this tradition means realization of true inherent nature greater than thoughts can conceive. It aims for free eternal blissful perfect infinite spiritually conscious existence. Hindu performance arts celebrate Shiva as lord of dance showing him dancing poses found in Natya Shastra text. This symbolism appears in Badami cave temples Ellora Caves Khajuraho and Chidambaram.
Shaivism arrived in southeast Asia from south India reaching major islands including Sumatra Java and Bali between 400 and 700 CE. In Indonesia temples at archaeological sites suggest Shiva was highest god co-existing with Buddhism until about 1500 CE when Islam replaced both traditions. The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly particularly in Cambodia Vietnam and Indonesia during centuries spanning 5th to 15th. Merchants and monks brought Shaivism Vaishnavism and Buddhism developing into syncretic mutually supporting forms across regions. In Balinese Hinduism Dutch ethnographers subdivided Siwa Sampradaya into five groups: Kemenuh Keniten Mas Manuba and Petapan. The Indonesian Hindu texts present philosophical diversity mirroring subcontinent traditions but commonly feature Shaiva Siddhanta locally called Sridanta. Bhattara Guru serves as popular name for Shiva derived from Sanskrit meaning noble lord conceptualized as first spiritual teacher. His wife Durga has complex character visualized with names like Uma Sri Kali and others. Shaivism remained popular form of Hinduism in Himalayan kingdom of Nepal co-evolving with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Influence on classical Cambodia Vietnam Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with same Indians. Shaivism adopted by several ruling dynasties including Chola Nayaks and Rajputs became state religion though other traditions persisted parallelly. Early medieval Indonesia witnessed similar trends with Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya adopting the faith.
Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted since ancient times in South Asia Southeast Asia and East Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions overlapped to extent where Buddhists and Hindus worshipped in same temple such as Seto Machindranath. In southeast Asia two traditions presented not competitive terms but alternate paths leading to same liberation goals. Scholars disagree whether syncretic tradition emerged or coalition formed with free borrowing ideas yet agree they co-existed peacefully. Earliest evidence comes from damaged sculptures from northwest Indian subcontinent dated about 1st-century CE showing Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara linked to Shiva features many common elements while others show Shiva linked to Maitreya carrying water pot like Vedic priests. Ancient works demonstrate Bodhisattva of Compassion shares features with Shiva in Shaivism. This syncretism continues contemporary era on island Bali where Buddha considered younger brother of Shiva. Pre-Islamic Java viewed Shaivism and Buddhism very close allied religions though not identical. Hindu temples in eastern states show Harihara half Shiva half Vishnu flanked by standing Buddha and Surya sun god. On major festivals like Nyepi festival of silence observations officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests. Jainism coexisted with Shaiva culture since ancient times particularly western southern India receiving royal support from Chaulukya Ganga Rashtrakuta dynasties. Late 1st millennium CE developed Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture using mantra recitation and fire offerings. Link between Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess more transparent than connection between Shaivism and Buddhism. 11th-century text Bhairavapadmavatikalpa equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism. While practices overlapped interaction differed regarding acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian avoiding sacrifice while Shaiva accepted practice.
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Common questions
When did Shaivism develop as a distinct tradition?
The formation of Śaiva traditions begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD. The earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the Pasupata movement in early centuries CE.
What is the Pashupati seal and when was it created?
Archaeological seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation dating to roughly 2500 BCE depict a figure seated in a meditative yoga pose surrounded by animals. Early scholars labeled this artifact the Pashupati seal and interpreted it as a prototype of Shiva.
Who founded the Lingayatism tradition within Shaivism?
Lingayatism founded by 12th-century philosopher Basava constitutes a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India. Adherents wear an Ishtalinga necklace containing the linga symbol of Shiva.
Where did Shaivism arrive in Southeast Asia between which years?
Shaivism arrived in southeast Asia from south India reaching major islands including Sumatra Java and Bali between 400 and 700 CE. In Indonesia temples at archaeological sites suggest Shiva was highest god co-existing with Buddhism until about 1500 CE when Islam replaced both traditions.
How does Shaiva monist philosophy differ from Shankara's Advaita Vedanta?
Unlike Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Shaiva monist schools consider Maya as Shakti or creative primordial power. The Pratyabhijna philosophy developed by 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta became central to this framework.