High Middle Ages
In the year 1086, King William I ordered a massive survey of England known as the Domesday Book. This census recorded every piece of land and its value across the kingdom. It captured a society in rapid transition after centuries of slow growth. Farmers north of the Alps began clearing vast forests that had reclaimed their lands since the fall of Rome. Historian Charles Higounet called this movement the great clearings. These settlers moved beyond the traditional borders of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers beyond the Elbe River. This expansion tripled the size of Germany during the process. New agricultural methods allowed wheat to grow well into Scandinavia. Wine grapes were cultivated in northern England despite the cooling climate trends. A three-field system replaced older two-field cycles. This innovation allowed legumes to be grown alongside other crops. Legume growth prevented soil nitrogen depletion. Population numbers rose steadily until the early fourteenth century. By 1350, economic levels reached heights not seen again in some regions until the nineteenth century.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by Francophone nobility in England. King John signed the Magna Carta into law in 1215. This document limited the power of English monarchs for the first time. In France, the Angevin Empire controlled much territory during the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. French kings eventually retook most of their previous lands. Germany operated under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire. Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa led the empire to its high-water mark of unity. He held significant political power across Central Europe. King David IV of Georgia expelled the Seljuk Empire from his lands between 1089 and 1125. His decisive victory at the Battle of Didgori recaptured Tbilisi. Queen Tamar continued this upward rise after her grandfather's death. She neutralized internal opposition while embarking on an energetic foreign policy. Hungary became one of the most powerful medieval states in Europe. Saint Stephen I established the Christian Kingdom of Hungary in 1000. The Árpád dynasty ruled the country for following centuries. Poland emerged as a duchy in the mid-tenth century under Mieszko I. Bolesław I the Brave made Poland a kingdom in 1025. Lithuania emerged as a Duchy in the early thirteenth century before becoming a Grand Duchy.
The East-West Schism of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts. Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other over theological disputes. They argued about the filioque addition to the creed concerning the Holy Spirit. Disputes also arose regarding papal authority over Eastern patriarchs. Catholic Crusades occurred between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. These expeditions were conducted under papal authority with intent to reestablish Christian rule in the Holy Land. Godfrey of Bouillon led the First Crusade to Jerusalem in 1096. He became the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem after its capture. The Fatimids had captured Palestine in AD 970 but lost it to Seljuk Turks in 1073. The Knights Templar were founded after the First Crusade to protect pilgrims from bandits. Philip the Fair arrested the entire order in France in 1307 on charges of heresy. The Teutonic Knights formed in 1190 in Acre to aid Christian pilgrims. They later invaded pagan Prussia to Christianize the Baltic region. Ten crusades took place in total during this era. The Fourth Crusade treacherously captured Constantinople in 1204. This event severely damaged Byzantine power and weakened their position against rising threats.
The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities. The University of Bologna began operating in 1088. Oxford followed shortly after in 1096. Paris, Salamanca, Cambridge, and Modena also opened their doors to scholars. Anselm of Canterbury lived between 1033 and 1109 and influenced new methods of learning. Thomas Aquinas led the move away from Platonic thought toward Aristotelianism. He developed a philosophy stating the mind was born as a blank slate. Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon emphasized empirical approaches to understanding nature. Grosseteste stressed mathematics as a way to understand natural phenomena. Robert Grosseteste and Duns Scotus extended natural science contained in ancient texts. These thinkers believed in empiricism while supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study. They opposed Christian mysticism and Platonist-Augustinian beliefs about the immaterial mind. The most famous scholastics included Peter Lombard and Abélard. Prominent opponents of mainstream scholastic views included William of Ockham and Bernard of Clairvaux. By the beginning of the thirteenth century, reasonably accurate Latin translations existed for almost all crucial ancient authors.
The earliest written record of a windmill comes from Yorkshire, England dated 1185. Paper manufacture began in Italy around 1270. The spinning wheel arrived in Europe during the thirteenth century likely from India. A magnetic compass aided navigation reaching some time in the late twelfth century. Eye glasses were invented in Italy in the late 1280s. Fibonacci introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe with his book Liber Abaci published in 1202. The West's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted rudder appears on church carvings dating to around 1180. Ship designs improved greatly making possible the dawn of the Age of Discovery. Gunpowder appeared as a major technological advance alongside the astrolabe. Better clocks emerged during this period along with modern shaped scissors. In less than a century more inventions developed than in the previous thousand years globally. These changes occurred across Europe between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Trade guilds began performing plays usually religiously based referencing their profession. A baker's guild would perform a reenactment of the Last Supper. Plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages.
The cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris construction began in 1163. It stands as one of the finer examples of High Middle Ages architecture. Gothic style superseded Romanesque forms by combining flying buttresses and pointed arches. Ribbed vaults allowed buildings to appear light and weightless compared to bulky predecessors. Colorful glass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness within these structures. Erwin Panofsky noted that the floor plan corresponded to scholastic rules. The plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections matching architectural logic. Occitan literature gave birth to troubadours who sang of courtly love in southern France. Their influence spread to Portugal, Germany, and northern Italy. Dante and Petrarca later built upon foundations laid by Provençal writers. The Divine Comedy remains the most important poem of the Late Middle Ages. It draws largely from both Aquinas theology and secular Occitan traditions. An anonymous German poet produced the Nibelungenlied bringing Germanic myths to epic levels. Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote Historia Regum Britanniae containing tales about King Arthur. Music notation developed in religious institutions making Gregorian chants easier to remember. Guido of Arezzo pioneered musical notation early in the period. Polyphony appeared in works of French Notre Dame School during the twelfth century.
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Common questions
What was the Domesday Book and when did King William I order it?
King William I ordered a massive survey of England known as the Domesday Book in the year 1086. This census recorded every piece of land and its value across the kingdom to capture a society in rapid transition.
When did the High Middle Ages period occur and what were its key economic milestones?
The High Middle Ages period occurred between AD 1000 and 1350. By 1350, economic levels reached heights not seen again in some regions until the nineteenth century after population numbers rose steadily until the early fourteenth century.
Who founded the University of Bologna and when did it begin operating?
The University of Bologna began operating in 1088 as part of the intellectual revitalization of Europe that started with the birth of medieval universities. Oxford followed shortly after in 1096 while Paris, Salamanca, Cambridge, and Modena also opened their doors to scholars.
Which monarch signed the Magna Carta into law and in what year?
King John signed the Magna Carta into law in 1215. This document limited the power of English monarchs for the first time following the Norman Conquest of 1066 which resulted in a kingdom ruled by Francophone nobility in England.
What major religious schism happened in 1054 and who was involved?
The East-West Schism of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts. Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other over theological disputes regarding the filioque addition to the creed concerning the Holy Spirit.