Scientific method
In 1027, Alhazen wrote his Book of Optics to deduce that outer space was less dense than air. He measured the refraction of light and concluded that the heavens were rarer than the atmosphere below. This work established controlled experiments as a method for scientific inquiry centuries before modern science existed. Earlier traditions from the ancient Stoics and Aristotle offered different approaches to reasoning about the natural world. The Islamic scholar Al-Biruni also contributed to these early developments in empirical observation. These figures laid the groundwork for later debates on how to generate knowledge through facts and induction.
Francis Bacon advocated for experiments while Robert Hooke furthered empiricism during the 16th and 17th centuries. Isaac Newton postulated four principles that form the basis of modern science and refined the scientific method. His laws of motion unified prior theory and measurements into consequences published in 1727. Galileo Galilei performed experiments that supported the new approach to understanding nature. Johannes Kepler used Tycho Brahe's method of observation to project images of the Sun through pinhole apertures. These astronomers recorded thousands of years of planetary motion data to build theories inductively. Newton's work demonstrated that reason alone could not solve problems without empirical evidence.
In January 1953, James Watson read Linus Pauling's pre-print and realized DNA phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. This contradicted the fact that DNA is an acid. Francis Crick and Watson discarded Pauling's triple helix model after seeing Rosalind Franklin's Photo 51. On Friday, the 30th of January 1953, Watson saw the X-ray diffraction image showing an X-shape pattern. He immediately recognized the helical structure of DNA. The team built physical models to find the quickest way to reach a result instead of continuing mathematical analysis. Jerry Donohue advised them on the 28th of February 1953, that base pairs should use the keto form. This allowed hydrogen bonds to pair unlike with unlike rather than like with like. Their cardboard models revealed that adenine-thymine pairs were identical in shape to guanine-cytosine pairs.
Georg Wilhelm Richmann died by ball lightning in 1753 while attempting to replicate Benjamin Franklin's kite-flying experiment from 1752. Scientists assume openness and accountability when experimenting to ensure results can be reproduced by others. John Ioannidis pointed out in 2005 that current methods led to many findings that could not be replicated. Journals like Nature and Science require researchers to archive data so others can test it. Ludwik Fleck promoted detailed record-keeping to aid reporting on experimental results. The National Science Foundation mandates that grant recipients share data and methods for future testing. Replication has become contentious in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals.
Karl Popper argued that theories only hold value if they are falsifiable. He used this criterion to demarcate scientific theory from astrology. Thomas Kuhn replaced the notion of a homogeneous universal method with the idea of heterogeneous local practice. Paul Feyerabend published Against Method in 1975 to argue against any universal rules of science. Lee Smolin wrote an essay titled There Is No Scientific Method in 2013. Daniel Thurs concluded in his 2015 book Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science that the scientific method is a myth or idealization. Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey debated these claims in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method.
Eadweard Muybridge took stop-action pictures of a galloping horse to prove legs gather together rather than splay apart. This disproved the belief held by supporters who included the flying gallop image in paintings. Ronald R. Sims noted that poorly attested beliefs can be believed via less rigorous heuristics. Confirmation bias leads people to observe what they expect to see even if another observer disagrees. In 2005, only 21% of gynecologists answered a question on Bayes' theorem correctly. Medical professionals often lack proper understanding of statistical methodologies used in research. Scientists favor parsimony when empirical evidence is limited but must avoid introducing cognitive bias into theory choice.
Common questions
When did Alhazen write his Book of Optics to deduce that outer space was less dense than air?
Alhazen wrote his Book of Optics in 1027. He measured the refraction of light and concluded that the heavens were rarer than the atmosphere below.
What date did James Watson see the X-ray diffraction image showing an X-shape pattern for DNA?
On Friday, the 30th of January 1953, Watson saw the X-ray diffraction image showing an X-shape pattern. He immediately recognized the helical structure of DNA.
Who died by ball lightning while attempting to replicate Benjamin Franklin's kite-flying experiment from 1752?
Georg Wilhelm Richmann died by ball lightning in 1753 while attempting to replicate Benjamin Franklin's kite-flying experiment from 1752. Scientists assume openness and accountability when experimenting to ensure results can be reproduced by others.
In what year did Daniel Thurs conclude that the scientific method is a myth or idealization?
Daniel Thurs concluded in his 2015 book Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science that the scientific method is a myth or idealization. Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey debated these claims in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method.
When did John Ioannidis point out that current methods led to many findings that could not be replicated?
John Ioannidis pointed out in 2005 that current methods led to many findings that could not be replicated. Journals like Nature and Science require researchers to archive data so others can test it.