Little Ice Age
The term Little Ice Age entered scientific literature in 1939 when geologist François E. Matthes described glaciers in the Sierra Nevada of California that he believed could not have survived the earlier hypsithermal period. This phrase now defines a regional cooling phase rather than a true global ice age, spanning roughly from the 16th to the 19th centuries though some experts prefer dates between 1300 and 1850. NASA Earth Observatory data identifies three particularly cold intervals beginning around 1650, another near 1770, and the last starting in 1850, all separated by slight warming periods. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report noted these timing patterns suggest largely independent regional climate changes instead of globally synchronous increased glaciation. At most there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during this era while Southern Hemisphere conditions developed differently with delays of about two centuries.
In Central Europe winter temperatures averaged 0.9 degrees Celsius below the 1961, 1990 baseline with the 17th century seeing drops of 1.2 degrees Celsius according to reconstructions by historian Christian Pfister and climatologist Heinz Wanner. The Baltic Sea froze over twice in 1303 and again during 1306, 1307 creating years of unseasonable cold storms and rising Caspian Sea levels. Farms and villages in the Swiss Alps were destroyed by encroaching glaciers during the mid-17th century while canals and rivers in Great Britain and the Netherlands frequently froze deeply enough to support ice skating festivals. In Lisbon Portugal snowstorms became much more frequent than today with one winter in the 17th century producing eight separate blizzards. The Seine River frozen on the 3rd of January 1880 while sea ice surrounding Iceland extended for miles closing harbors to shipping and causing Iceland's population to fall by half possibly due to skeletal fluorosis after the Laki eruption in 1783.
Famines in France between 1693 and 1694 Norway from 1695 to 1696 and Sweden from 1696 to 1697 claimed roughly 10 percent of each country's population while Estonia and Finland lost a fifth and third respectively during 1696, 1697. Alpine villagers lived on bread made from ground nutshells mixed with barley and oat flour as agriculture dropped off dramatically in the late 17th century. The Great Famine of 1315, 1317 occurred when rains triggered crop failures though some scholars argue this predated the main Little Ice Age period. Viticulture disappeared from northern regions and storms caused serious flooding leading to permanent loss of large coastal areas from Denmark Germany and the Netherlands. In China rainfall in the Huabei region dropped by 11% to 47% from historical averages while the Shaanbei region along the Yellow River experienced six major floods that ruined cities like Yan'an. The Wanli Emperor ordered Jurchens to pay tribute despite famine conditions which sowed seeds for rebellion against the Ming dynasty.
Scientists have tentatively identified seven possible causes including orbital cycles decreased solar activity increased volcanic activity altered ocean current flows fluctuations in human population reforestation or deforestation and inherent variability in global climate. A severe tropical volcanic eruption in 1257 possibly Mount Samalas near Lombok Indonesia followed by three smaller eruptions in 1268 1275 and 1284 did not allow the climate to recover triggering initial cooling. The 1815 eruption of Tambora blanketed the atmosphere with ash making the following year known as the Year Without a Summer when frost and snow were reported in June and July across New England and Northern Europe. Other volcanoes contributing include Billy Mitchell around 1580 Huaynaputina in 1600 Mount Parker in 1641 Long Island Papua New Guinea circa 1660 and Laki in 1783. Orbital forcing from Earth's orbit has caused long-term northern hemisphere cooling at roughly 0.02 degrees Celsius per century while solar minima like the Spörer Minimum between 1400, 1550 and Maunder Minimum from 1645, 1715 coincided with cold periods.
The first River Thames frost fair occurred in 1608 and the last in 1814 before changes to bridges and the addition of the Thames Embankment diminished freezing possibilities. Merchants equipped boer style boats with planks and skates creating iceboats to continue trade during prolonged winters spanning five months. Paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder such as The Hunters in the Snow and Massacre of the Innocents appeared around 1565 possibly inspired by harsh winters crossing the Alps during his trip to Rome in 1551, 1552. Hendrick Avercamp painted snowy subjects starting in 1609 with a hiatus between 1627 and 1640 matching climate records for later periods. The violinmaker Antonio Stradivari produced instruments during this era where colder climates may have made wood denser contributing to tone quality. Historian James Burke noted widespread use of buttons button-holes knitting custom undergarments and invention of chimneys replacing open fires allowed houses with multiple rooms to separate masters from servants.
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Common questions
When did the Little Ice Age occur and what dates do experts use?
The Little Ice Age spans roughly from the 16th to the 19th centuries though some experts prefer dates between 1300 and 1850. NASA Earth Observatory data identifies three particularly cold intervals beginning around 1650, another near 1770, and the last starting in 1850.
How much colder was Central Europe during the Little Ice Age compared to modern baselines?
In Central Europe winter temperatures averaged 0.9 degrees Celsius below the 1961, 1990 baseline with the 17th century seeing drops of 1.2 degrees Celsius according to reconstructions by historian Christian Pfister and climatologist Heinz Wanner. The Baltic Sea froze over twice in 1303 and again during 1306, 1307 creating years of unseasonable cold storms and rising Caspian Sea levels.
What famines occurred in Europe between 1693 and 1697 due to the Little Ice Age?
Famines in France between 1693 and 1694 Norway from 1695 to 1696 and Sweden from 1696 to 1697 claimed roughly 10 percent of each country's population while Estonia and Finland lost a fifth and third respectively during 1696, 1697. Alpine villagers lived on bread made from ground nutshells mixed with barley and oat flour as agriculture dropped off dramatically in the late 17th century.
Which volcanic eruptions caused cooling periods during the Little Ice Age?
A severe tropical volcanic eruption in 1257 possibly Mount Samalas near Lombok Indonesia followed by three smaller eruptions in 1268 1275 and 1284 did not allow the climate to recover triggering initial cooling. The 1815 eruption of Tambora blanketed the atmosphere with ash making the following year known as the Year Without a Summer when frost and snow were reported in June and July across New England and Northern Europe.
When did the first and last River Thames frost fair occur during the Little Ice Age?
The first River Thames frost fair occurred in 1608 and the last in 1814 before changes to bridges and the addition of the Thames Embankment diminished freezing possibilities. Merchants equipped boer style boats with planks and skates creating iceboats to continue trade during prolonged winters spanning five months.