Christian mysticism
The Greek word theoria meant contemplation, speculation, or a looking at things. It came from theorein, which means to consider, speculate, or look at. The Latin term contemplatio carried similar weight, referring to gazing at divine realities with the eyes or the mind. Until the sixth century, early Christians used these terms interchangeably to describe what we now call mysticism. They spoke of the eye of love that looks at God rather than merely experiencing Him as an external object. Bernard McGinn argues that presence is more accurate than union because not all mystics claimed to be united with God. Many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to such union but still represented a transformative presence. William James popularized the use of religious experience in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. This concept influenced how scholars understood mysticism as a distinctive event supplying knowledge. Friedrich Schleiermacher traced roots back further by arguing religion was based on a feeling of the infinite. He used this notion to defend faith against growing scientific and secular critiques. Caroline Bynum showed how late Middle Age miracles served to vindicate theological orthodoxy against heretical ideas like Catharism. Mystical experiences were often shaped by cultural issues surrounding the time they occurred.
Jewish spirituality before Jesus focused heavily on corporate worship services within synagogues. These gatherings included reading Hebrew Scriptures and reciting prayers during major festivals. Private spirituality drew strength from liturgies and scriptures like the Psalms for prayer. Individual prayers recalled historical events just as much as immediate personal needs. Concepts like Binah meaning understanding and Chokmah meaning wisdom emerged from years of scriptural meditation. Shekhinah described the presence of God in daily life, surpassing earthly wealth. The hiddenness of God forced believers to seek Him through faith and obedience rather than direct sight. Poverty became an ascetic value reflecting apocalyptic expectations of God's impending arrival. Greek thought entered Christian mysticism through Plato who lived between 428 and 348 BC. His system provided the basis for most later mystical forms. Plotinus founded Neoplatonism around 205 AD and offered a non-Christian foundation for Jewish and Islamic mysticism too. In his Enneads he stated that everything is contemplation and derived from it. The One turned to itself in simple regard implying no complexity or need. Intellect emanated from this source as living contemplation being self-reflective activity par excellence. Aristotle distinguished contemplation from practice requiring abstention from active life for the superior life of theoria. Early church fathers adopted these ideas while maintaining distinct theological boundaries.
Hesychasm concerns spiritual transformation of the egoic self following a path designed to produce fully realized human persons. An ancient aphorism attributed to Athanasius of Alexandria states God became human so man might become god. This process called theosis aims at likeness to or union with God. John Romanides teaches that the quintessential goal of Christian life is attaining deification understood as relationship or synergy between God and man. Contemplative prayer results from cultivating watchfulness known as nepsis in Greek. Theoria allows one to behold uncreated light which is grace beyond conceptual knowledge. Andrew Louth notes theology prepares for contemplation rather than serving its purpose. Evagrius Ponticus lived between 345 and 399 AD and taught contemplative practices later developed by others. Symeon the New Theologian lived from 949 to 1022 and believed direct experience gave monks authority to preach without formal ordination. Church authorities resisted his charismatic approach supporting individual direct experience of divine grace. Gregory Palamas argued God transcends incomprehensible essence yet remains experienced through energies. Vladimir Lossky interpreted this teaching as central to Eastern Orthodox theology distinguishing it from Western scholasticism. False spiritual knowledge arises not from experiencing God but reading another's experience and drawing conclusions. Spiritual delusion called prelest in Russian or plani in Greek opposes sobriety meaning full consciousness. Evil turns humanity against its creator separating existence from nature. Reconciliation reaches through submission in faith to transcendence rather than transgression.
Teresa of Ávila distinguished nine grades of prayer ranging from vocal prayer to transforming union. Four grades belong to ascetical stages while five represent infused prayer belonging to mystical phases. Natural contemplation features one dominant thought recurring constantly amid many other thoughts beneficial or otherwise. It simplifies itself leading one to think chiefly of God though often confusedly. Saint Alphonsus Maria de Liguori defined acquired contemplation as seeing truths previously discovered only through prolonged discourse. Reason largely replaced by intuition affections and resolutions expressed in few words. Ignatius of Loyola designed thirty-day retreats focusing on Jesus' life events with application of senses. This method fosters empathy for values encouraging followers to love him more closely. Infused contemplation acts as supernatural gift centering mind totally on God alone who manifests himself. Intellect receives special insights into spirits while affections animate extraordinarily with divine love. Thomas Dubay considers this form common among those living Gospel wholeheartedly engaging earnest prayer lives. John Baptist Scaramelli reacted against quietism teaching asceticism and mysticism distinct paths to perfection. He viewed latter something extraordinary very rare compared to normal ordinary end of Christian life. Jacques Maritain proposed not every mystic enjoys habitual infused contemplation since gifts Holy Spirit limit intellectual operations. The Prayer of Quiet brings extraordinary peace rest accompanied by delight contemplating God present.
Augustine spoke of seven stages advancing toward contemplation corresponding vegetative sensitive rational levels human life. Fourth stage represents virtue purification fifth tranquility attained control passions sixth entrance divine light illuminative stage seventh indwelling unitive truly mystical contemplation Meister Eckhart did not articulate clear-cut stages though divisions appear his works. Hildegard of Bingen flourished during High Middle Ages alongside Bernard of Clairvaux Victorines all different orders. First real flowering popular piety occurred among laypeople during same period. Late Middle Ages saw clash Dominican Franciscan schools representing conflicting mystical theologies. Dominic de Guzmán opposed Francis of Assisi Anthony Padua Bonaventure Jacopone da Todi Angela Foligno. Groups centered geographic regions included Beguines Mechthild Magdeburg Hadewijch Rhenish-Flemish mystics Meister Eckhart Johannes Tauler Henry Suso John Ruysbroeck English mystics Richard Rolle Walter Hilton Julian Norwich. Catherine Siena Genoa Devotio Moderna books Theologia Germanica Cloud Unknowing Imitation Christ emerged then. Martin Luther monk influenced German Dominican tradition Eckhart Tauler Dionysian Wesenmystik published Theologia Germanica claiming importance after Bible Augustine teaching God Christ humanity. John Calvin rejected many Medieval ascetic practices favoring doctrinal knowledge over affective experience yet retained Jean Gerson Devotio Moderna influences.
Protestant Reformation downplayed mysticism producing fair amount spiritual literature despite skepticism toward Catholic practices. Even active reformers linked to Medieval traditions like Martin Luther who was monk influenced by German Dominican tradition. He claimed Theologia Germanica most important book after Bible Augustine teaching about God Christ humanity. John Calvin favored doctrinal knowledge over affective experience retaining Jean Gerson Devotio Moderna emphasis piety method spiritual growth imitating Christ son-father relationship. Radical Reformation leaders Caspar Schwenckfeld Sebastian Franck possessed mystical leanings Peter Sterry Johann Arndt produced Magisterial tradition mystics. Jakob Böhme original thinker Lutheran tradition forerunner Christian theosophy theologians turned away Medieval traditions returning biblical early Christian practices. They skeptical Catholic mysticism seeming downplay role grace redemption supporting idea human works play role salvation. Protestant theology developed strong critical attitude often animosity towards Christian mysticism. Quakers Methodists Episcopalians Lutherans Presbyterians Local Churches Pentecostals Adventists Charismatics remained open various ways mystical experiences. English denominational mix included Catholic Augustine Baker Julian Norwich first woman write English Anglicans William Law John Donne Lancelot Andrewes Puritans Richard Baxter John Bunyan Pilgrim Progress. George Fox first Quaker John Wesley first Methodist well-versed continental mystics Sir Thomas Browne physician scientist thought meandered mystical realms Religio Medici Garden Cyrus full running title Or Quincuncial Lozenge Network Plantations ancients Naturally Artificially Mystically considered.
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Common questions
What does the Greek word theoria mean in Christian mysticism?
The Greek word theoria means contemplation, speculation, or a looking at things. It came from theorein which means to consider, speculate, or look at.
When did early Christians use terms like theoria and contemplatio interchangeably for mysticism?
Early Christians used these terms interchangeably until the sixth century to describe what we now call mysticism. They spoke of the eye of love that looks at God rather than merely experiencing Him as an external object.
Who lived between 428 BC and 348 BC and provided the basis for later mystical forms through Plato?
Plato lived between 428 BC and 348 BC and his system provided the basis for most later mystical forms. His thought entered Christian mysticism through this philosophical framework.
How many grades of prayer did Teresa of Ávila distinguish in her work on Christian mysticism?
Teresa of Ávila distinguished nine grades of prayer ranging from vocal prayer to transforming union. Four grades belong to ascetical stages while five represent infused prayer belonging to mystical phases.
What is the meaning of theosis in Hesychasm according to John Romanides?
The process called theosis aims at likeness to or union with God. John Romanides teaches that the quintessential goal of Christian life is attaining deification understood as relationship or synergy between God and man.