Buddhist meditation
In the ancient landscape of India, a wandering ascetic named Gautama sat beneath a tree and began to explore states of mind that had never been fully mapped. His early teachers, known as Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, taught him formless jhanas or mental absorptions that were key practices in pre-Buddhist traditions. These techniques involved suppressing activity to achieve a state where pleasure and pain waned completely. The Buddha adopted these old yogic methods but radically transformed them by integrating mindfulness and rejecting their Vedic goal of union with Brahman. He developed a practice where insight into the four noble truths followed the attainment of dhyana, creating a new path toward liberation from suffering. This approach differed significantly from Jain ascetic practices which emphasized extreme fasting and forceful meditation without breathing. The earliest Buddhist texts describe how the Buddha rejected these more extreme forms in favor of what he called the middle way. Scholars like Johannes Bronkhorst note that the teaching of the Buddha contains contradictions because it absorbed various non-Buddhist meditative methods found in early sources. These included practices based on suppression of activity which were later adopted from Jains by the Buddhist community. The two major traditions of meditative practice in pre-Buddhist India were the Jain ascetic practices and the various Vedic Brahmanical practices. There is still much debate regarding how much influence these two traditions had on the development of early Buddhist meditation.
The Pali Satipatthana Sutta enumerates four subjects on which mindfulness is established: the body, feelings, mind, and phenomena or principles. Mindfulness refers to remembering, recollecting, and bearing in mind while also relating to knowing how teachings relate to one's experiences. Different early texts give different enumerations of these four mindfulness practices which are said to develop insight. Anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, is likely the most widely used Buddhist method for contemplating bodily phenomena in both ancient and modern times. This practice specifically concerns mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation as part of paying attention to one's body in quietude. It recommends cultivating the Seven Factors of Enlightenment including sati, dhamma vicaya, viriya, piti, passaddhi, samadhi, and upekkha. Asubha bhavana involves reflection on the foul or unattractiveness through cemetery contemplations and reflections on repulsiveness. This form of meditation considers thirty-one parts of the body contemplated in a variety of ways to overcome desire and lust. The four Brahmavihara include loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity which lead to cetovimutti or liberation of the mind. A conch blower simile illustrates how these divine abodes are developed as boundless radiation in all directions so they cannot be overruled by other limited karma. These practices aim to develop qualities such as equanimity, sati, samadhi, samatha, and vipassana while also leading to supramundane powers.
The 5th-century Visuddhimagga written by Buddhaghosa became the most influential presentation of Theravada meditation theory despite containing non-canonical instructions. This text reflects Theravada Abhidhamma scholasticism with several innovations not found in the earliest discourses of the Buddha. It centers around kasina-meditation where the mind is focused on a mental object like earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light, or limited-space. Buddhaghośa advises that for developing concentration and consciousness one should apprehend from among forty meditation subjects one that suits their own temperament. Breath meditation does not fit well into this mold according to Thanissaro Bhikkhu who notes the text tries to fit all other methods into kasina practice. The modern Burmese Vipassana movement popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw considers samatha an optional but not necessary component of practice. Pa-Auk sayadaw Bhaddanta Acinna upholds the emphasis on samatha explicit in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga. Other Burmese traditions derived from Ledi Sayadaw via Sayagyi U Ba Khin take a similar approach while being influential on Western teachers. The Thai Forest Tradition deriving from Mun Bhuridatta stresses the inseparability of serenity and insight as essential necessity of both practices. Ajahn Chah popularized this tradition alongside noted practitioners like Ajahn Thate and Ajahn Maha Bua. Some less common forms include Vijja Dhammakaya meditation developed by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro which shares features with tantric practices.
The Yogacarabhumi-Śāstra compiled around the 4th century serves as the most comprehensive Indian Mahayana treatise on meditation practice explaining numerous methods. It discusses early Buddhist topics such as four dhyanas, different kinds of samadhi, development of insight and tranquility, four foundations of mindfulness, and five hindrances. Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya and Vasubandhu's Madhyantavibhaga-bhasya also discuss classic meditation topics including mindfulness and thirty-seven wings to awakening. The Prajnaparamita Sutras describe prajnaparamita as a kind of samadhi which is deep understanding arising from meditative insight totally non-conceptual and unattached to any person or thing. This state entails not clinging to five aggregates representing all phenomena nor even perceiving oneself as a bodhisattva who courses in signs. A bodhisattva must base themselves on universal friendliness directed towards all living beings and on bodhicitta the intention to become Buddha for sake of all beings. Shantideva's Bodhicaryavatara depicts how a bodhisattva's meditation was understood in later period of Indian Mahayana focusing on generating bodhicitta first. Kamalasila's Bhavanakrama teaches insight and tranquility from a Yogacara-Madhyamaka perspective while promoting classic practices like meditating on corpses and living in forests. Chinese translator Kumarajiva transmitted various meditation works including treatise titled Sutra Concerned with Samadhi in Sitting Meditation teaching Sarvastivada system of fivefold mental stillings.
Deity Yoga serves as central defining form of Vajrayana meditation involving recitation of mantras prayers and visualization of yidam deity along with associated mandala. Practitioners imagine themselves becoming that body developing divine pride understanding that self and deity are not separate. Yidam practice focuses on three essential aspects of deities which are principal aspects of all being: body speech and mind. Most tantric practices incorporate these three aspects sequentially or simultaneously creating total absorption into meditative experience. Advanced Deity Yoga involves imagining yourself as deity and developing divine pride understanding that oneself and deity are not separate. Other forms include Mahamudra taught by Kagyu lineage and Dzogchen taught by Nyingma lineages each aiming to familiarize one with ultimate nature of mind underlying existence. Shared preliminary practices called ngöndro involve visualization mantra recitation and many prostrations before advanced techniques begin. Dream Yoga Tummo yoga of intermediate state bardo sexual yoga and chöd represent additional methods found within Tibetan tradition. Chinese esoteric Buddhism focused on separate set of tantras such as Mahavairocana Tantra and Vajrasekhara Sutra though practices revolve around similar techniques like visualization of mandalas. Use of mudra mantra and mandala regarded as three modes of action associated with Three Mysteries hallmarks of esoteric Buddhism.
Psychologists and expert Buddhist meditation teachers including Dipa Ma Anagarika Munindra Thich Nhat Hanh Pema Chodron Clive Sherlock Mother Sayamagyi S.N. Goenka Jon Kabat-Zinn Jack Kornfield Joseph Goldstein Tara Brach Alan Clements and Sharon Salzberg have integrated healing aspects of Buddhist meditation with psychological awareness. Mindfulness meditation has received most research attention while loving kindness and equanimity meditation are beginning used in wide array of research fields psychology and neuroscience. The accounts of meditative states in Buddhist texts free of dogma so much so that scheme adopted by Western psychologists attempting describe phenomenon of meditation general. However it is exceedingly common to encounter Buddha describing meditative states involving attainment of magical powers ability multiply body into many appear vanish at will pass through solid objects rise sink ground walk water fly skies touch anything distance even moon sun travel other worlds like world Brahma without or with body. Whole tradition may not adaptable to secular context unless these magical powers seen metaphorical representations powerful internal states conceptual descriptions could not do justice to. Meditation based on Buddhist principles practiced long time for purposes effecting mundane worldly benefit described further below as bonpu gedo zen.
Common questions
What were the early teachers of Gautama Buddha and what did they teach?
Gautama Buddha's early teachers were Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. They taught him formless jhanas or mental absorptions that involved suppressing activity to achieve a state where pleasure and pain waned completely.
How does Anapanasati mindfulness of breathing function in Buddhist practice?
Anapanasati is mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation as part of paying attention to one's body in quietude. It recommends cultivating the Seven Factors of Enlightenment including sati, dhamma vicaya, viriya, piti, passaddhi, samadhi, and upekkha.
When was the Visuddhimagga written and who wrote it?
The 5th-century Visuddhimagga was written by Buddhaghosa. This text became the most influential presentation of Theravada meditation theory despite containing non-canonical instructions.
What are the core components of Deity Yoga in Vajrayana Buddhism?
Deity Yoga involves recitation of mantras prayers and visualization of yidam deity along with associated mandala. Practitioners imagine themselves becoming that body developing divine pride understanding that self and deity are not separate.
Which modern teachers have integrated healing aspects of Buddhist meditation with psychological awareness?
Psychologists and expert Buddhist meditation teachers including Dipa Ma Anagarika Munindra Thich Nhat Hanh Pema Chodron Clive Sherlock Mother Sayamagyi S.N. Goenka Jon Kabat-Zinn Jack Kornfield Joseph Goldstein Tara Brach Alan Clements and Sharon Salzberg have integrated these practices.