Prajnaparamita
The Sanskrit term Prajñāpāramitā combines two words: prajñā meaning wisdom or knowledge, and pāramitā meaning excellence, perfection, or that which has gone to the other side. This phrase defines a perfected way of seeing the nature of reality within Mahāyāna Buddhism. It refers not only to a philosophical concept but also to a specific body of scriptures known as the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. These texts include famous works such as the Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra. The core idea centers on emptiness, described in Sanskrit as śūnyatā, and the lack of intrinsic essence called svabhāva. All phenomena are characterized by non-arising, a state termed anutpāda. This philosophy is deeply connected to the Madhyamaka thought developed by Nāgārjuna. He famously questioned how an effect could be produced from a cause that is either identical to itself or different from it. The sūtras declare that all dharmas are actually unborn. Understanding this practice is considered indispensable for the Bodhisattva path.
Western scholars traditionally identify the Aśtasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, or Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines, as the earliest text in this class. Evidence suggests it was probably put into writing during the 1st century BCE. Edward Conze largely based these dates on the timeline of translations into other languages. Some believe a corresponding version written in verse format might be slightly older because it avoids standard literary Sanskrit. Verses and mantras often remain in more archaic forms within late-dating Indian texts. Scholars have proposed that Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings first developed among the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāñghikas. They originated amongst southern Mahāsāñghika schools located along the Krsna River in the Andhra region. Two famous monasteries near Amarāvati Stupa and Dhānyakataka gave their names to the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools. Each school possessed a copy of the Aśtasāhasrikā Sūtra in Prakrit. In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged partial Kharośthī manuscript from Gandhara. This manuscript is very similar to the first Chinese translation by Lokakşema around 179 CE. The source text for Lokakşema's work is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language. Comparison with standard Sanskrit suggests the original composition was likely in Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhara.
The Pañcaviśatisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā Sūtra stands as one of the largest texts, comprising three volumes within the Tibetan Kangyur. It spans 25,000 lines and remains one of the most important sutras in India due to numerous commentaries. Scholars like Vimuktisena, Haribhadra, Smrtijñanakirti, and Ratnakarashanti wrote on this specific text. The Pañcaviśatisāhasrikā is basically the Aśtasāhasrikā base text which has been sliced up and filled with other material. This process of expansion continued until it culminated in the massive Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra containing 100,000 lines. Joseph Walser notes evidence that the 25,000-line and 100,000-line sutras have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka sect. In contrast, the 8,000-line Aśtasāhasrikā does not share this sectarian link. Other texts were composed that were much shorter and had more independent structures from the main body. Edward Conze noted that two of these shorter texts, the Diamond Sutra and Heart Sutra, are in a class by themselves. Jan Nattier argues the Heart Sutra might be an apocryphal text composed in China around the 7th century from extracts of larger texts. Red Pine disagrees with Nattier and believes the Heart Sutra to be of Indian origin.
During the later phase of Indian Buddhism, Tantric Prajñāpāramitā texts were produced between the 8th and 11th centuries CE. These esoteric sutras generally contain mantras and dhāraņīs alongside references to Mantrayana ideas. They often promote simple practices based on recitation which lead to merit accumulation and help one reach awakening. Specific examples include the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra with 150 lines and the famous Heart Sutra known as Prajñāpāramitāhridaya. The Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā and Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā also appear within this corpus. Some sources like the Svalpākşarā claim that simply reciting dharanis found in these sutras is as beneficial as advanced esoteric Buddhist practices. These scriptures may have been recited in rituals involving mandalas and abhiseka. Two of them remain in widespread use today: the Prajñāpāramitāhridaya and the Adhyardhaśatikā. The latter text is widely recited in Shingon Buddhism. The practice allows for a direct engagement with wisdom through sound and ritual action rather than purely intellectual study.
By the middle of the 3rd century CE, some Prajñāpāramitā texts were already known in Central Asia. Chinese monk Zhu Zixing reported bringing back a manuscript of the Prajñāpāramitā containing 25,000 lines. In China, extensive translation efforts began during the second century CE. Main translators included Lokakşema, Zhī Qīan, Dharmarakşā, Mokşala, Kumārajīva, Xuánzàng, Făxián, and Dānapāla. Xuanzang traveled to India and returned with three copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra secured from his travels. He commenced translating this voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure source integrity. A suite of dreams quickened his decision to render an unabridged complete volume faithful to the original 600 fascicles. The Chinese scholar translated a massive Sanskrit collection called the Xuánzàng Prajñāpāramitā Library. This collection includes 16 Prajñāpāramitā texts spanning 600 scrolls with 5 million Chinese characters. The sutras were first brought to Tibet during the reign of Trisong Detsen between 742 and 796 by scholars Jinamitra and Silendrabodhi. Translator Ye shes De also played a key role in introducing these texts to the region.
A key theme involves the figure of the Bodhisattva defined in the 8,000-line sutra as one who trains in all dharmas without obstruction. Such a being experiences everything without attachment and sees reality or suchness as it truly is. The goal of the Buddhist path becomes becoming a Buddha for the sake of all sentient beings rather than just oneself. A central quality of the Bodhisattva is their practice of Prajñāpāramitā, a deep state of knowledge arising from analysis and meditative insight. It is non-conceptual and non-dual as well as transcendental. Edward Conze outlined psychological qualities including non-apprehension, no settling down, and no attainment. No person can possess or gain any dharma. Non-reliance on any dharma means being unsupported and not leaning on anything. Karl Brunnhölzl states that all phenomena from form up through omniscience are utterly devoid of intrinsic characteristics. Tathātā refers to Suchness or Thusness and is used equivalently with Dharmatā and Tathāgata. The Tathāgata neither comes nor goes according to the Aśtasāhasrikā Sūtra. Six synonyms associated with Tathāgata include Suchness, Unarisen, Reality limit, Emptiness, Division, Detachment, Cessation, and Space element. Most modern scholars see Śūnyatā as the central theme of these sutras. Dharmas are empty of any own-being because they depend on something other than themselves.
Various Indian and later Chinese commentaries exist on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. The Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa is a massive encyclopedic text translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva between 344 and 413 CE. It claims to be from the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna though scholars like Étienne Lamotte have questioned this attribution. The Abhisamayālańkāra serves as the central shastra in the Tibetan tradition. It is traditionally attributed as a revelation from Bodhisattva Maitreya to scholar Asanga who flourished in the 4th century CE. Haribadra wrote an influential commentary called the Abhisamayalankaraloka on this text. Vimuktisena also produced another Indian commentary to the same work. Other texts include the Satasahasrika-paramita-brhattika attributed to Daştrāsena and Dignaga's Prajnaparamitarthasamgraha-karika. Ratnākaraśanti contributed the Prajñāpāramitopadeśa. In Tibet, the Gelug school treats the Ornament of Clear Realization as a kind of Buddhist encyclopedia read alongside commentaries by Je Dzong-ka-ba and Gyel-tsap Je. These works collectively form the Seventeen Mothers and Sons known as yum sras bcu bdun. They represent the most important source texts for study within that tradition.
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Common questions
What does the term Prajnaparamita mean in Buddhism?
The Sanskrit term Prajñāpāramitā combines prajñā meaning wisdom or knowledge and pāramitā meaning excellence, perfection, or that which has gone to the other side. This phrase defines a perfected way of seeing the nature of reality within Mahāyāna Buddhism.
When was the earliest Prajnaparamita text written down?
Evidence suggests the Aśtasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was probably put into writing during the 1st century BCE. Edward Conze largely based these dates on the timeline of translations into other languages.
Where did Mahayana Prajnaparamita teachings first develop?
Scholars have proposed that Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings first developed among the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāñghikas. They originated amongst southern Mahāsāñghika schools located along the Krsna River in the Andhra region.
Who translated the Prajnaparamita sutras into Chinese during the second century CE?
Main translators included Lokakşema, Zhī Qīan, Dharmarakşā, Mokşala, Kumārajīva, Xuánzàng, Făxián, and Dānapāla. Xuanzang traveled to India and returned with three copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra secured from his travels.
What is the central theme of the Prajnaparamita sutras according to modern scholars?
Most modern scholars see Śūnyatā as the central theme of these sutras. Dharmas are empty of any own-being because they depend on something other than themselves.