History of Russia
About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated from Western Asia to the North Caucasus. Archaeologists found a stone tool inside the skull of an Elasmotherium caucasicum that lived between 1.5 and 1.2 million years ago on the Taman Peninsula. In the Dagestan Akusha region, researchers uncovered 1.5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools. Fossils of Denisovans in Russia date to about 110,000 years ago. A bone fragment found in Denisova Cave belonged to a female who died approximately 90,000 years ago. This individual was a hybrid of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. The partial skeleton of a Neanderthal infant in Mezmaiskaya cave showed a carbon-dated age of only 45,000 years. Russian archaeologists from Novosibirsk uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile hominin at Denisova Cave in 2008. The first trace of Homo sapiens on the large expanse of Russian territory dates back to 45,000 years in central Siberia. Evidence for anatomically modern humans appeared at the Kostenki archaeological site near the Don River by 40,000 years ago. Humans reached Arctic Russia by 40,000 years ago.
The traditional start date of specifically Russian history is the establishment of the Rus state in the north in the year 862. Prince Oleg of Novgorod seized Kiev in 882, uniting northern and southern lands under one authority. By the end of the 10th century, governance moved to Kiev while maintaining autonomy between regions. The state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988 through public baptism of Kiev inhabitants by Prince Vladimir I. This act began a synthesis of Byzantine, Slavic, and Scandinavian cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Some years later, Yaroslav the Wise introduced Russkaya Pravda, the first code of laws. Church Slavonic was used directly in liturgy instead of Greek or Latin. Kievan Rus displayed an economy and achievements superior to western Europe during Yaroslav's reign. A nomadic Turkic people called Kipchaks replaced Pechenegs as the dominant force in southern steppe regions at the end of the 11th century. Kievan Rus disintegrated due to in-fighting among princely family members ruling collectively. Kiev was destroyed when Mongol Golden Horde invaded in 1240.
In 1237-1238, Mongols burnt down the city of Vladimir on the 4th of February 1238. They routed Russians at the Sit River before moving west into Poland and Hungary. Only Novgorod Republic escaped occupation and continued flourishing within the Hanseatic League orbit. New cities like Moscow, Tver, and Nizhny Novgorod competed for hegemony under Golden Horde suzerainty. Prince Dmitry Donskoy defeated Mongol warlord Mamai at Kulikovo in 1380. Forces of khan Tokhtamysh sacked Moscow in 1382 as punishment for resisting authority. Mongol domination continued into early 16th century despite claims that Ugra standoff in 1480 signified liberation. Daniil Aleksandrovich founded Moscow principality which first cooperated with then expelled Tatars from Russia. Moscow became center of Russian Orthodox Church when Metropolitan fled Kiev to Vladimir in 1299. Ivan III tripled territory size through annexing Novgorod and Tver during conflicts with Lithuanian rivals. He refused further tribute to Tatars initiating attacks defeating declining Golden Horde. Ivan proclaimed absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles.
Peter the Great created Russian navy and established foothold on Black Sea by taking Azov town. His attention turned north where Sweden blocked Baltic access. In 1699 he made secret alliance with Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden resulting in Great Northern War. The war ended in 1721 when exhausted Sweden sued for peace. Peter acquired four provinces south and east of Gulf of Finland securing sea access. There in 1703 he founded Saint Petersburg as new capital city. In celebration of conquests, Peter assumed emperor title making Tsardom officially Russian Empire in 1721. He reorganized government replacing boyar Duma with Senate supreme council of state. Administrative Collegia ministries replaced old departments in St. Petersburg. Peter promulgated famous Table of ranks in 1722 abolishing patriarchate creating Holy Synod led by lay official. Catherine II overthrew husband in coup becoming queen regnant in 1775. She supported Enlightenment ideals earning status enlightened despot while patronizing arts science learning. Catherine extended political control over Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth supporting Targowica Confederation. Major peasant uprising erupted in 1773 inspired by Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev crying Hang all landlords until crushed. Russia annexed Crimea in 1783 creating Black Sea fleet then incorporated Polish territories during Partitions pushing frontier westward into Central Europe.
Napoleon's invasion involved 450,000 troops suffering massive casualties at Borodino battle. Russians retreated burning crops food supplies implementing scorched earth policy multiplying Napoleon logistic problems. Eighty-five to ninety percent of soldiers died from disease cold starvation or ambush by peasant guerrillas. Russian troops pursued retreating forces into Central Western Europe defeating army in Battle Nations finally capturing Paris. Of total population around 43 million people Russia lost about 1.5 million in year 1812 including 250,000 to 300,000 soldiers. Alexander presided redrawing European map at Congress Vienna making him king Congress Poland forming Holy Alliance with Austria Prussia suppressing revolutionary movements. Nicholas I faced Decembrist Revolt December 1825 work small circle liberal nobles army officers wanting constitutional monarch. Revolt easily crushed leading Nicholas turn away reforms championing reactionary doctrine Orthodoxy Autocracy Nationality. In 1826-1828 Russia fought another war against Persia regaining lost territories winning highly favorable terms. Treaty Turkmenchay granted Armenia Nakhchivan Nagorno-Karabakh Azerbaijan Iğdır. By 1830s Russia conquered all Persian major Ottoman territories Caucasus region. Crimean War showed world Russia militarily weak technologically backward administratively incompetent despite ambitions south toward Ottoman Empire.
Crimean defeat discredited armed services highlighting need modernize countries defenses beyond strictly military sense. Demilitarization Black Sea major blow leaving vulnerable southern coastal frontier unprotected against British any other fleet. Destruction Russian Black Sea Fleet Sevastopol naval docks humiliation no compulsory disarmament previously imposed great power. Allies regarded Russia semi-Asiatic state rather than European power. Image many Russians built country biggest richest powerful suddenly shattered exposing backwardness shortcomings every institution. Alexander II came throne in 1855 widespread demand reform most pressing problem confronting government serfdom. In 1859 there were 23 million serfs out total population 67 million. Peasant revolts intensified during nineteenth century culminating with Alexander II abolishing Russian serfdom in 1861. Following decades reform efforts Stolypin reforms 1906-1914 constitution 1906 State Duma 1906-1917 attempted open liberalize economy political system emperors refused relinquish autocratic rule resist sharing power combination economic breakdown mismanagement World War I discontent autocratic system triggered Russian Revolution 1917.
End monarchy initially brought office coalition liberals moderate socialists failed policies led October Revolution. In 1922 Soviet Russia Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR Transcaucasian SFSR signed Treaty Creation USSR officially merging four republics form Soviet Union single state. Between 1922 and 1991 history Russia essentially became history Soviet Union. During period Soviet Union victor World War II recovering surprise invasion 1941 Nazi Germany collaborators previously signed non-aggression pact country. Network satellite states Eastern Europe sphere influence closing stages World War II helped country become superpower competing fellow superpower United States Western countries Cold War. Mid-1980s weaknesses Soviet economic political structures becoming acute Mikhail Gorbachev embarked major reforms eventually leading weakening communist party dissolution Soviet Union leaving Russia again own marking start history post-Soviet Russia. Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself Russian Federation primary successor state Soviet Union Article 1 Lisbon Protocol U.S. State Department website. Russia retained nuclear arsenal lost superpower status scrapping central planning state ownership property Soviet era 1990s new leaders Vladimir Putin took political economic power after 2000 engaged assertive foreign policy.
Coupled economic growth Russia regained significant global status world power since Vladimir Putin leadership. Russia 2014 annexation Crimean Peninsula led economic sanctions imposed United States European Union. Russia 2022 invasion Ukraine led significantly expanded sanctions under Putin's leadership corruption rated worst Europe human rights situation increasingly criticized international observers. New leaders took political economic power after 2000 engaging assertive foreign policy coupled economic growth regaining significant global status world power. Corruption in Russia remains problematic while human rights concerns persist among international observers reviewing conditions within modern federation boundaries established following collapse Soviet Union structure mid-1990s transition period marked democratic attempts economic challenges contemporary conflicts shaping current geopolitical landscape across Eurasian region spanning former imperial territories now independent states competing interests regional powers global actors navigating complex diplomatic relationships historical legacies modern realities defining national identity future trajectory direction chosen by current administration policies implemented domestically internationally affecting millions lives across vast territory stretching Baltic Sea Pacific Ocean Arctic Circle Mediterranean borders.
Common questions
When did the first Homo sapiens appear on Russian territory?
The first trace of Homo sapiens on the large expanse of Russian territory dates back to 45,000 years in central Siberia. Evidence for anatomically modern humans appeared at the Kostenki archaeological site near the Don River by 40,000 years ago.
What year marks the traditional start of specifically Russian history?
The traditional start date of specifically Russian history is the establishment of the Rus state in the north in the year 862. Prince Oleg of Novgorod seized Kiev in 882, uniting northern and southern lands under one authority.
Who founded Moscow principality and when did it become the center of the Russian Orthodox Church?
Daniil Aleksandrovich founded Moscow principality which first cooperated with then expelled Tatars from Russia. Moscow became center of Russian Orthodox Church when Metropolitan fled Kiev to Vladimir in 1299.
In what year did Peter the Great officially make Tsardom into Russian Empire?
Peter assumed emperor title making Tsardom officially Russian Empire in 1721. He reorganized government replacing boyar Duma with Senate supreme council of state and promulgated famous Table of ranks in 1722 abolishing patriarchate creating Holy Synod led by lay official.
When did Alexander II abolish Russian serfdom and how many serfs were there at that time?
Alexander II abolished Russian serfdom in 1861 following decades of reform efforts. In 1859 there were 23 million serfs out total population 67 million before this abolition.
What year did Mikhail Gorbachev begin reforms leading to dissolution of Soviet Union?
Mikhail Gorbachev embarked major reforms in mid-1980s eventually leading weakening communist party dissolution Soviet Union leaving Russia again own marking start history post-Soviet Russia. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself Russian Federation primary successor state Soviet Union Article 1 Lisbon Protocol U.S. State Department website.