Mongols
In 699 BCE, the Donghu confederation occupied eastern Mongolia and Manchuria, marking one of the earliest recorded homelands for proto-Mongolic peoples. Sima Qian described these Donghu as existing alongside the Shanrong in Inner Mongolia north of Yan during that period. Chinese histories trace Mongolic tribes back to this Donghu group, though some scholars debate whether they were purely proto-Mongol or a multi-ethnic mix including Turkic elements. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation and possibly maintained independence within it while also relating to the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States period, poems mentioned small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, suggesting distinct physical characteristics recognized by neighboring cultures. These early Xianbei originated from the Zhukaigou culture between 2200 and 1500 BCE in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to modern Daur people and Tungusic Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei traded with the Shang dynasty, establishing economic connections across vast distances. Another core region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture spanning 1000 to 600 BCE, centered on the Donghu confederation in Inner Mongolia. After Modu Chanyu defeated the Donghu around 209 BCE, the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as main remnants of the original confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan died in 207 AD and became ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi tribe. In 49 CE, Xianbei ruler Bianhe raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing approximately 2000 men after receiving gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai who reigned from 156 to 181 and expanded their vast but short-lived confederation. Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state: the Rouran, the Khitan people, and the Shiwei subtribe. The Shiwei Menggu is held by some scholars to be the origin of Genghisid Mongols. These tribes practiced nomadic lifestyles, followed shamanism or Buddhism, and maintained formidable military strength. No direct evidence confirms that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages, though most scholars agree they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitans developed two scripts of their own with many Mongolic words found in half-deciphered writings.
In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under Genghis Khan's rule. Beginning in the 10th century, Khitans prevailed in several military campaigns against Tang dynasty border guards and Xi, Shiwei, and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of the Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai in 1124 while maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai before the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty between 1222 and 1306 in Iran and the Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, Mongolic people settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine. They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, and Great Khans of the Mongols. One leader named Al-Adil Kitbugha became Sultan of Egypt. The Mongolic peoples of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty. After the breakup of the empire, dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Tatars, Bashkirs, Turkmens, Uyghurs, Nogais, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs, Caucasus peoples, Iranian peoples, and Moghuls. Linguistic and cultural Persianization began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into the Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia, with about 30% of Yakut words having Mongol origin. Remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China, and many Mongols were massacred by rebel armies before survivors were trapped and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugur, and Monguor people were invaded by the Ming dynasty.
The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. Qing forces secured control over Inner Mongolia by 1635 when the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect forces. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet while most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by Manchus by 1636. In 1688, Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murdering his younger brother Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj, beginning the Khalkha-Oirat War. Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war, with few fleeing to the Buryat region where Russia threatened extermination if they did not submit. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 through Zanabazar's decision, bringing all today's Mongolia under Qing dynasty rule though Khalkha de facto remained under Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. About 200,000 to 250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to the Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate led by Tayishi Kho Orluk. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000 to 350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at Kalmyk autonomy while encouraging Russian and German settlements on pastures used for livestock. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began migration from their Volga pastures to Dzungaria through territories of Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led this migration to restore Mongolian independence after sending 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War between 1768 and 1774 to gain weapons. Empress Catherine the Great ordered Russian army, Bashkirs, and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake where about 100,000 to 150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank could not cross because the river did not freeze in winter 1771. After seven months of travel, only one-third or 66,073 of the original group reached Dzungaria at Balkhash Lake, western border of Qing Empire. Influential leaders died soon after being killed by Manchus while the Qing Empire transmigrated remaining Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent revolt.
Joseph Stalin's regime stopped Buryat migration to Mongolia in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During Stalinist repressions in Mongolia, almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000 to 33,000 Mongols representing 3 to 5 percent of total population were shot dead under Soviet orders. Common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals, and elite people fell victim to these purges. Some authors offer much higher estimates reaching up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s, the Mongolian People's Republic had overall population between 700,000 and 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet officials admitted they repressed too many people leaving only hundred thousands remaining. The proportion of victims relative to country population was much higher than corresponding figures from Great Purge in Soviet Union. In 1927, Nicholas II, tsar of Russia, stated that Kalmyks are more dangerous than Volga Tatars because they are Mongols so send them to war to reduce population. On the 23rd of April 1923, Joseph Stalin said their policy on Kalmyks related to Mongols was too peaceful. In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, tundra, and Karelia. The Oirats founded sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on the 22nd of March 1930 with small army where 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province before state destruction by Soviet Army in 1930. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 where around half of the 97,000 to 98,000 Kalmyks died before being allowed return home in 1957. Government of Soviet Union forbade teaching Kalmyk language during deportation while main purpose for many Kalmyks was migration to Mongolia. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate deportees to Mongolia meeting them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under Law of Russian Federation dated the 26th of April 1991, repressions against Kalmyks qualified as acts of genocide. Thirty-five thousand Buryats were killed during rebellion in 1927 while around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died between 1900s and 1950s. Ten thousand Buryats from Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in 1930s.
Mongolian is official national language of Mongolia spoken by nearly 2.8 million people according to 2010 estimate and official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region where at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols reside. Across whole of China, language is spoken by roughly half of country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols according to 2005 estimate though exact number unknown due to no data on language proficiency. Use of Mongolian in China witnessed periods of decline and revival over last few hundred years experiencing decline during late Qing period, revival between 1947 and 1965, second decline between 1966 and 1976, second revival between 1977 and 1992, third decline between 1995 and 2012. Despite decline in some urban areas and educational spheres, ethnic identity of urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols likely survives due presence of urban ethnic communities. Multilingual situation does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language though unknown number may have completely or partially lost ability to speak language while still registered as ethnic Mongols. Children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols. Linguists traditionally proposed link to Tungusic and Turkic language families included alongside Mongolic in broader Altaic group though this remains controversial. Today Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu, and Bonan. Additionally many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication. Specific origin of Mongolic languages and associated tribes remains unclear despite centuries of linguistic research.
Original religion of Mongolic peoples was Mongolian shamanism with Xianbei coming in contact with Confucianism and Daoism before eventually adopting Buddhism. In 5th century Buddhist monk Dharmapriya proclaimed State Teacher of Rouran Khaganate where 3,000 families and some nobles became Buddhists. In 511 Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to Tuoba court with pearl-encrusted statue of Buddha as gift. Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddharians though still retained original Shamanism while Tuoba had sacrificial castle west of capital where ceremonies to spirits took place. Wooden statues of spirits erected on top of sacrificial castle with ritual involving seven princes with milk offerings ascending stairs with 20 female shamans offering prayers sprinkling sacred milk. Khitan had holiest shrine on Mount Muye keeping portraits of earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, wife Kedun, and eight sons in two temples. Mongolic peoples exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Islam from west. Borjigin had holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where ancestor Börte Chono and Goo Maral gave birth to them. Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed, and meditated on this mountain before campaigns thanking it for saving life by praying at foot sprinkling offerings bowing nine times east with belt around neck and hat held chest. Later Tengrism imperial cult centered on eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos grew into highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts enshrined in oral wisdom sayings collected in several volumes anda blood-brother system and ancient texts like Chinggis-un Bilig Wisdom of Genghis and Oyun Tulkhuur Key of Intelligence. Melig younger son of Ögedei first of Mongolian royal line to accept Islam while general populace still practiced Shamanism. Dongxiang and Bonan people adopted Islam as did Moghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In 1576 Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became state religion of Mongolia though Red Hat school coexisted with Gelug Yellow Hat founded by half-Mongol Je Tsongkhapa between 1357 and 1419. Shamanism absorbed into state religion while marginalized in purer forms surviving only in far northern Mongolia. Monks were leading intellectuals responsible for much literature and art of pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet preserved in older purer form in Mongolian ancient texts like Mongol Kanjur. Zanabazar lived from 1635 to 1723, Zaya Pandita from 1599 to 1662, Danzanravjaa from 1803 to 1856 among most famous Mongol holy men. Fourth Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso lived from 1589 to 1617 recognized as only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama though current 14th Dalai Lama has Mongolic Monguor extraction. Name combination of Mongolian word dalai meaning ocean and Tibetan word bla-ma meaning guru teacher mentor.
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Common questions
When did the Donghu confederation occupy eastern Mongolia and Manchuria?
The Donghu confederation occupied eastern Mongolia and Manchuria in 699 BCE. This period marks one of the earliest recorded homelands for proto-Mongolic peoples according to Chinese histories.
Who founded the Mongol Empire and when did it begin expanding under his rule?
Genghis Khan united Mongolic-speaking tribes into an umbrella term called Mongol beginning in the thirteenth century. The empire expanded from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine during his reign.
What happened to the Kalmyk people during their migration from the Volga River in January 1771?
Approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began migrating from their Volga pastures to Dzungaria in January 1771 but only 66,073 reached Balkhash Lake after seven months of travel. Empress Catherine the Great ordered Russian armies to exterminate the migrants while Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake where about 100,000 to 150,000 could not cross because the river did not freeze in winter 1771.
How many ethnic Mongols reside in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region as of 2010 estimates?
At least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols reside in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region according to 2010 estimates. Across whole of China language is spoken by roughly half of country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols though exact number remains unknown due to no data on language proficiency.
When did Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism become state religion of Mongolia and who founded it?
Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became state religion of Mongolia in 1576. The Red Hat school coexisted with Gelug Yellow Hat which was founded by half-Mongol Je Tsongkhapa between 1357 and 1419.