Golden Horde
In 1242, Batu Khan established his capital at Sarai on the lower Volga River. This location sat upon the site of the ancient Khazar capital known as Atil. The Mongol Empire had divided its territories among Genghis Khan's four sons in the early 13th century. Jochi received lands around the Irtysh River as an appanage far from his father's native home. Batu became the primary heir to these western territories after Jochi died before he could significantly expand them. In 1235, Batu and the great general Subutai began a massive invasion westward. They first conquered the Bashkirs and then moved into Volga Bulgaria by 1236. By 1237, they took control of southern steppes in present-day Ukraine. Many local Cumans were forced to retreat westward during this campaign. The Mongols continued their advance using the migration of the Cumans as justification for war. They raided Poland and Hungary, culminating in victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi. However, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongol homeland in 1241. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but chose not to return to Mongolia. He instead stayed at the Volga River with his army. His brother Orda returned to participate in the succession dispute. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west than they did under Batu.
Batu Khan ruled from 1242 until his death in 1255. After Batu died, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan. Sartaq died shortly after returning from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia. An infant named Ulaghchi succeeded him under the regency of Boragchin Khatun. Batu's widow summoned Rurikid princes to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai asking for pardon and was reappointed grand prince of Vladimir. Ulaghchi soon died after a few months according to Arabic sources. Boragchin turned to Hulegu for protection before Berke accused her of high treason and had her executed. Berke became khan of the Golden Horde in 1257 or 1258. He had been converted to Islam and was Batu's younger brother. Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland in 1259. He demanded submission from Béla IV of Hungary and Louis IX of France in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order. When Berke died en route to fight Abaqa in 1264, Mengu-Timur succeeded him as ruler. Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai Khan. He issued a diploma in 1267 exempting Russian clergy from taxation. Töde Möngke took power in 1281 but ruled alongside Nogai Khan who established himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus governed by two khans simultaneously during this period.
Öz Beg Khan assumed the throne in 1313 and adopted Islam as the state religion. He built a large mosque in Solkhat in Crimea in 1314. Öz Beg proscribed Buddhism and Shamanism among the Mongols in the Golden Horde. By 1315 he had successfully Islamicized the Horde and killed Jochid princes who opposed his religious policy. Ibn Battuta visited Sarai in 1333 finding it to be a large beautiful city with vast streets. Six nations including Mongols, Alans, Kypchaks, Circassians, Russians and Greeks each had their own quarters within the capital. Merchants occupied a special walled section of the city all to themselves. Öz Beg continued the alliance with the Mamluks begun by Berke and his predecessors. He kept friendly relations with the Mamluk Sultan and his shadow Caliph in Cairo. In 1320 the Jochid princess Tulunbay married Al-Nasir Muhammad Sultan of Egypt. When Öz Beg learned of her divorce in 1334 or 1335 he sent an angry missive. The Tver Uprising of 1327 caused Öz Beg to begin backing Moscow as the leading Russian state. Ivan I added grand princely title words meaning all Russia in imitation of the metropolitan's title. This marked the beginning of the drive to unify Russia under Moscow's ecclesiastical capital.
Under Öz Beg Khan trade caravans went unmolested and there was general order throughout the Golden Horde. Genoese merchants settled in Crimea after his accession though the Mongols sacked their outpost Sudak in 1332 when they clashed with Turks. Öz Beg signed a new trade treaty with the Genoese in 1339 allowing them to rebuild walls of Caffa. In 1332 he allowed Venetians to establish a colony at Tanais on the Don River. Jani Beg signed a commercial treaty with Venice in 1347. The slave trade flourished due to strengthening ties with the Mamluk Sultanate. Housing increased in Sarai transforming the capital into center of a large Muslim Sultanate. The Black Death appeared in the region of Issyk-Kul during the 1340s. By spring and summer of 1346 it had been reported in most cities including Urgench, Sarai and Azaq. It reached Solkhat and spread among ranks of Jani Beg's army during siege of Caffa. As entire regions were depopulated economy of the Horde went into steep decline. Parts of northern trade route collapsed by the 1350s. From 1339 Öz Beg received annually 24,000 ding in Yuan paper currency from Jochid appanages in China.
The Great Troubles period lasted from 1359 until 1381 bringing great political instability to the Golden Horde. Berdi Beg was killed in coup by his brother Qulpa in 1359. Qulpa's two sons bore Slavic names Michael and Ivan which outraged Muslim populace. In 1360 Nawruz Beg revolted against khan killing him and his sons. Khidr rebelled against Nawruz whose own lieutenant betrayed him leading to execution. Timur Khwaja reigned for only five weeks before descendants of Öz Beg Khan seized power. In 1362 the Golden Horde divided between Keldi Beg in Sarai Bulat Temir in Volga Bulgaria and Abdullah in Crimea. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania attacked western tributaries conquering Kiev and Podolia after Battle of Blue Waters in 1363. Mamai backed Abdullah but failed to take Sarai seeing reign of two more khans Murad and Aziz. Tokhtamysh defeated Mamai in 1381 thus briefly reestablishing Golden Horde as dominant regional power. He sent envoy to Russian states resuming their tributary status though envoy stopped at Nizhny Novgorod. Tokhtamysh immediately seized all boats on Volga ferrying army across commencing siege of Moscow falling after three days under false truce. Timur retaliated by invading Khwarezm destroying Urgench then annihilating Tokhtamysh's army again at Battle of Terek River in 1395.
By start of 15th century Horde had begun to fall apart completely. By 1466 it was being referred to simply as Great Horde. Within its territories emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates claiming inheritance from original state. Crimean Khanate survived until 1783 when conquered by expanding Russian state. Kazakh Khanate lasted until 1847 before also falling to Russian expansion. The Khanate of Sibir ruled by dynasty originating with Taibuga in 1405 split into Shaybanid Ibak Khan and Taibugid Muhammad in 1468. Ulugh Muhammad fled to Lithuania where his authority limited to lower banks of Volga. Barak Khan attacked reigning khans in west within two years defeating Ulugh Kepek and Dawlat Berdi. Abu'l-Khayr Khan founded Uzbek Khanate after defeating Barak in 1427. In 1445 Mäxmüd of Kazan murdered father Ulugh Muhammad fleeing middle Volga region founding Khanate of Kazan. Hacı I Giray seized Crimea from Ahmad I in 1449 founding Crimean Khanate considering itself heir to Golden Horde. Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan led 200,000 followers eastwards to Chu River in 1458 becoming Kazakh Khanate. Moscow formally rid itself of Tatar yoke at Great Stand on Ugra River in 1480 traditionally marking end of Mongol rule over Russia.
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Common questions
When did Batu Khan establish the capital of the Golden Horde at Sarai?
Batu Khan established his capital at Sarai on the lower Volga River in 1242. This location sat upon the site of the ancient Khazar capital known as Atil.
Who became khan of the Golden Horde after Batu died in 1255?
Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan to rule after Batu died in 1255. Sartaq died shortly after returning from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia and was succeeded by an infant named Ulaghchi under regency.
Which ruler adopted Islam as the state religion of the Golden Horde in 1313?
Öz Beg Khan assumed the throne in 1313 and adopted Islam as the state religion. He proscribed Buddhism and Shamanism among the Mongols in the Golden Horde and had successfully Islamicized the Horde by 1315.
What event caused the economy of the Golden Horde to decline in the 1340s?
The Black Death appeared in the region of Issyk-Kul during the 1340s and reached Solkhat and spread among ranks of Jani Beg's army during siege of Caffa. As entire regions were depopulated the economy of the Horde went into steep decline.
When did Moscow formally rid itself of Tatar yoke at the Great Stand on Ugra River?
Moscow formally rid itself of Tatar yoke at the Great Stand on Ugra River in 1480. This date traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia.