Serfdom
In the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire faced a severe labor shortage. Large landowners began relying on Roman freemen acting as tenant farmers instead of slaves to provide work. These tenant farmers eventually became known as coloni. Their condition steadily eroded over time because the tax system implemented by Emperor Diocletian assessed taxes based on both land and its inhabitants. It became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census. Medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the Carolingian Empire around the 10th century. During this period, powerful feudal lords encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural labour. This arrangement provided most of the agricultural labour throughout the Middle Ages. Slavery persisted right through the Middle Ages, but it was rare.
Unlike slaves, serfs could not be bought, sold, or traded individually. They could, depending on the area, be sold together with land. Actual slaves, such as the kholops in Russia, could be traded freely. Kholops had no rights over their own bodies and could not leave the land they were bound to. Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the lord of the manor who owned that land. In return, they were entitled to protection, justice, and the right to cultivate certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Villeins had more rights and status than those held as slaves. Within his constraints, a serf had some freedoms. Though common wisdom suggests a serf owned only his belly, even his clothes were the property of his lord in law. A well-to-do serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth. Some serfs became wealthier than their free neighbours, although this happened rarely. A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.
Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also in his mines and forests. They laboured to maintain roads throughout the year. Usually, a portion of the week was devoted to ploughing the lord's fields held in demesne. This included harvesting crops, digging ditches, repairing fences, and working in the manor house. The remainder of the serf's time was spent tending his own fields, crops, and animals to provide for his family. Most manorial work was segregated by gender during regular times of the year. During the harvest, the whole family was expected to work the fields. In Poland, labour requirements varied significantly over centuries. It was commonly a few days per year per household in the 13th century. By the 14th century it rose to one day per week per household. In the 17th century it reached four days per week per household. By the 18th century, six days per week per household was common. Taxes were based on the assessed value of lands and holdings. Fees were usually paid in the form of agricultural produce rather than cash. The best ration of wheat from the serf's harvest often went to the landlord.
Serfdom began to disappear west of the Rhine even as it spread through eastern Europe. Serfdom reached Eastern Europe centuries later than Western Europe. It became dominant around the 15th century. In many countries serfdom was abolished during the Napoleonic invasions of the early 19th century. In some regions it persisted until mid- or late-19th century. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist. In Denmark, serfdom-like institutions existed in the stavnsbånd between 1733 and 1788. Its vassal Iceland had the more restrictive vistarband from 1490 until 1894. In France, serfdom started to diminish after the Black Death when the lack of workforce made manumission more common. By the 18th century, serfdom had become relatively rare in most of France. In 1779, reforms by Jacques Necker abolished serfdom in all Crown lands in France. However, formal serfdom no longer existed in most of France, yet feudal seigneurial laws still granted noble landlords many rights previously exercised over serfs.
In the Habsburg monarchy, Emperor Joseph II issued the Serfdom Patent that abolished serfdom in Bohemia and German speaking areas in 1781. The document allowed serfs legal rights but did not affect financial dues or physical corvée unpaid labor owed to landlords. It continued to exist and was only abolished during the revolutions of 1848. Russia's over 23 million privately held serfs were freed from their lords by an edict of Alexander II in 1861. State serfs were emancipated in 1866. Prussia declared serfdom unacceptable in its General State Laws for the Prussian States in 1792. It was abolished in 1807 in the wake of the Prussian Reform Movement. Serfdom in Poland became the dominant form of relationship between peasants and nobility in the 17th century. The first steps towards abolition were enacted in the Constitution of the 3rd of May 1791. It was essentially eliminated by the Połaniec Manifesto. These reforms were partly nullified by the partition of Poland. Frederick the Great had abolished serfdom in territories gained from the first partition of Poland.
Outside Europe, descriptions of serfdom appear in other regions. James Lee and Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese Qing dynasty as maintaining a form of serfdom from 1644 to 1912. Melvyn Goldstein described Tibet as having serfdom until 1959, though this is contested. Bhutan is described as having officially abolished serfdom by 1959. In the Aztec Empire, the Tlacotin class held similarities to serfdom. Even at its height, slaves only ever made up 2% of the population. The United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery prohibits serfdom as a practice similar to slavery. In Gaelic Ireland, semi-free servile tenants existed from prehistoric times up until the Norman conquest. They were not free to leave territory except with permission. They had no political or clan rights and could neither sue nor appear as witnesses. The last type of serf was the slave who owned no tenancy in land. They worked for the lord exclusively and survived on donations from the landlord. It was always in the interest of the lord to prove that a servile arrangement existed.
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Common questions
When did serfdom begin in the Roman Empire?
Serfdom began to develop in the 3rd century AD when large landowners relied on tenant farmers known as coloni due to a severe labor shortage. The condition of these tenants eroded over time because Emperor Diocletian implemented a tax system assessed based on both land and its inhabitants.
How were serfs different from slaves in medieval times?
Unlike slaves, serfs could not be bought, sold, or traded individually but could sometimes be sold together with the land they occupied. Actual slaves such as kholops in Russia had no rights over their own bodies and could leave the land only if freed, whereas serfs received protection and justice in return for working the lord's fields.
What were the labor requirements for serfs in Poland during the 18th century?
Labor requirements in Poland rose significantly over centuries until six days per week per household became common by the 18th century. Serfs worked on the lord's demesne fields, mines, forests, and roads while spending the remainder of their time tending their own crops and animals.
When was serfdom abolished in France and who issued the reforms?
Reforms by Jacques Necker abolished serfdom in all Crown lands in France in 1779. Although formal serfdom no longer existed in most of France by that date, feudal seigneurial laws still granted noble landlords many rights previously exercised over serfs.
Who freed the privately held serfs in Russia and when did it happen?
Russia's over 23 million privately held serfs were freed from their lords by an edict of Alexander II in 1861. State serfs were emancipated four years later in 1866 following this major legislative change.