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— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Poland

~9 min read · Ch. 1 of 8
8 sections

  • Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens of any country in the Second World War. Around 6 million people perished, more than one-sixth of the pre-war population. Half of them were Polish Jews, and about 90% of those deaths were non-military in nature. This is a place that ceased to exist as a territorial entity for 123 years, partitioned out of existence by its neighbours, then rebuilt itself again and again. A country in Central Europe stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains, Poland today holds over 38 million people across sixteen voivodeships. How does a nation vanish from the map and return? Why did it become the first communist country to re-establish itself as a liberal democracy? What made a flat river basin the seed of a thousand-year story? The answers begin with a field, a Latin chronicle, and a tribe called the Polans.

  • Polska is the native name for the country, and it traces back to the Polans, a West Slavic tribe that settled the Warta River basin between the 6th and 8th centuries. Their name comes from the Proto-Slavic noun pole, meaning field, which itself reaches back to a Proto-Indo-European root for flatland. The word points directly at the topography of Greater Poland and its flat landscape.

    During the Middle Ages, the Latin form Polonia spread across Europe. An older alternative name, Lechia, also survived. Its root still appears in official use in Hungarian, Lithuanian, and Persian. The exonym may come from Lech, a legendary ruler of the Lechites, or from the Lendians, a tribe on the south-easternmost edge of Lesser Poland, whose name grew from the Old Polish word lęda, meaning plain. Chroniclers once used Lechia and Polonia interchangeably. The country those names described would soon be defined by a single document about its boundaries.

  • In 966, Mieszko I, ruler of the Polans, accepted Western Christianity under the Roman Catholic Church, an act tantamount to the conversion of Poland itself. Two years later a missionary bishopric rose in Poznań. A text called Dagome iudex first drew Poland's geographical boundaries, named Gniezno as the capital, and placed the monarchy under the protection of the Apostolic See. The country's early origins were recorded by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle.

    Saint Adalbert was killed by Prussian pagans in 997, and his remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave. In 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right of investiture from Otto III, who granted new dioceses in Kraków, Kołobrzeg, and Wrocław. Bolesław was crowned the first King of Poland around 1025, with permission from Pope John XIX.

    In 1138, Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons, fragmenting the country into five principalities. In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to fight the Baltic Prussians, a decision that led to centuries of warfare. The Statute of Kalisz in 1264 granted unprecedented autonomy to Polish Jews fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. In 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland, crowned at Wawel Cathedral. Beginning in 1333, Casimir III the Great built castles, reformed the judiciary, imposed quarantine against the Black Death, and in 1364 founded the University of Kraków. When he died in 1370, the Piast dynasty ended.

  • In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania. The union formed the Jagiellonian dynasty and brought vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere. At the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, a combined Polish-Lithuanian army won a decisive victory against the Teutonic Knights. After the Thirteen Years' War, the Peace of Thorn in 1466 placed the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty.

    In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned a bicameral parliament, the Sejm, with a chamber of deputies and a chamber of senators. The Nihil novi act of 1505 shifted most legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, beginning the era known as Golden Liberty. Protestant Reformation movements pushed deep into Polish Christianity, and the country answered with policies of religious tolerance unique in Europe. The Polish Brethren, who broke from Calvinism, became co-founders of global Unitarianism.

    Bona Sforza, the Italian-born daughter of the Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, shaped architecture, cuisine, language, and court customs at Wawel Castle. The Union of Lublin of 1569 created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a federal state with an elective monarchy governed largely by the nobility. At its peak it covered approximately one million square kilometres, the largest state in Europe. In 1573, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approved the Henrician Articles, which bound future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles. At Khotyn in 1621, Jan Karol Chodkiewicz defeated the Turks, hastening the downfall of Sultan Osman II. In 1683, John III Sobieski halted an Ottoman army at the Battle of Vienna.

  • The royal election of 1764 raised Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the throne, his candidacy funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia. In 1772, Prussia, Russia, and Austria carried out the First Partition, which the Partition Sejm ratified under duress. The following year a plan of reforms created the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe. Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was prohibited in 1783.

    The Great Sejm adopted the 3rd of May Constitution in 1791, the first modern constitution in Europe, introducing a constitutional monarchy. The Targowica Confederation opposed the act and appealed to Catherine, provoking the Polish-Russian War of 1792. The Second Partition followed in 1793. On the 24th of October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned a third time and ceased to exist. Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated on the 25th of November 1795.

    The Polish people rose repeatedly. In the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War, led insurgents to victory at the Battle of Racławice before his ultimate defeat. In 1806, Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon. The 1807 Treaty of Tilsit created the Duchy of Warsaw, and Józef Poniatowski became Marshal of France shortly before his death at Leipzig in 1813. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the territory was split again among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The November Uprising of 1830 and the January Uprising of 1863 to 1864 both collapsed, the latter bringing deportations and pogroms.

  • Over 450,000 Poles died serving in the armies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian Empire during the First World War, with a total of 2 million in uniform. The Treaty of Versailles of June 1919 confirmed the reconstitution of Poland, and the Second Polish Republic regained independence after the November 1918 armistice. At the Battle of Warsaw, Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army in the Polish-Soviet War.

    Gabriel Narutowicz, the first president, was assassinated in 1922 at the Zachęta Gallery by the painter and nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski. In 1926, the May Coup led by Marshal Józef Piłsudski handed rule to the nonpartisan Sanacja movement. The Nazi German invasion began on the 1st of September 1939, and the Soviet invasion followed on the 17th of September, splitting the country under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

    The Armia Krajowa, or Home Army, was one of the three largest resistance movements of the war, running an underground state with degree-awarding universities and a court system. In the summer of 1944 it launched Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising beginning on the 1st of August is best known. Polish troops fought at the Battle of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino. Polish code breakers cracked the Enigma cipher, and Polish scientists in the Manhattan Project helped create the American atomic bomb. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war, notably in the Katyn massacre. Six German extermination camps operated in occupied Poland, including Treblinka, Majdanek, and Auschwitz. In 1945, the borders shifted westward to the Oder-Neisse line, the territory shrank by 20%, and millions were forced to migrate.

  • At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned a pro-Communist provisional government formed in Moscow, ignoring the Polish government-in-exile in London. Many Poles considered it a betrayal by the Allies. The elections organised by Soviet authorities in 1945 were falsified to lend a veneer of legitimacy to Soviet control. The Small Constitution was adopted on the 19th of February 1947, and the Polish People's Republic was proclaimed in 1952.

    After the death of Bolesław Bierut in 1956, the regime of Władysław Gomułka grew temporarily more liberal, freeing prisoners and expanding some freedoms. Collectivisation failed. A similar loosening repeated in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, yet Poland was considered one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc. Labour turmoil in 1980 produced the independent trade union Solidarity. Despite martial law imposed in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party.

    By 1989, Solidarity triumphed in Poland's first partially free elections since the war. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, won the presidency in 1990. A shock therapy programme led by Leszek Balcerowicz transformed the planned economy into a market economy, and Poland became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP level, as early as 1995. The country joined the Visegrád Group in 1991, NATO in 1999, and the European Union on the 1st of May 2004.

  • Rysy rises to 2,500 metres in the Tatra Mountains, the highest point in a country whose lowest sits 2.2 metres below sea level at Marzęcino on the Vistula Fens. Poland's coastline runs 770 kilometres along the Baltic, indented by spits and lagoons like the Hel Peninsula. The country holds one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, around ten thousand, mostly in the Masurian Lake District, where Lake Hańcza reaches 108.5 metres in depth.

    Forests cover 31% of the land, and an estimated 69% of them are coniferous. The European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, ranks among the most protected species, alongside the Eurasian beaver, the lynx, the gray wolf, and the Tatra chamois. The extinct aurochs lingered here until its last individual died in Poland in 1627. Poland hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks, one of its national animals.

    Nicolaus Copernicus triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Sun rather than the Earth at the centre of the universe, and he also derived a quantity theory of money. Maria Skłodowska-Curie, who lived much of her life in France, established Poland's Radium Institute in 1925. The Lwów School of Mathematics gathered Stefan Banach, Stanisław Mazur, Hugo Steinhaus, and Stanisław Ulam. Beneath the surface, the Wieliczka Salt Mine winds through labyrinthine tunnels past an underground lake and chapels carved by miners out of rock salt. The largest castle in the world by land area stands at Malbork, one more monument in a country with 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

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Common questions

Where is Poland located and what countries border it?

Poland is a country in Central Europe that extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south. It borders Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west.

How did Poland get its name?

The native name Polska derives from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe that inhabited the Warta River basin between the 6th and 8th centuries. The tribe's name comes from the Proto-Slavic noun pole, meaning field, which alludes to the flat landscape of Greater Poland.

When did Poland become a Christian kingdom?

Poland adopted Christianity in 966 when Mieszko I, ruler of the Polans, accepted Western Christianity under the Roman Catholic Church. Bolesław I the Brave was crowned the first King of Poland around 1025 with permission from Pope John XIX.

Why did Poland disappear from the map for 123 years?

Poland was partitioned by Prussia, Russia, and Austria in three stages in 1772, 1793, and 1795. On the 24th of October 1795 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned a third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity, ending its independent existence for 123 years.

How many people did Poland lose in World War II?

Poland lost around 6 million citizens in the Second World War, more than one-sixth of its pre-war population and the highest percentage of any country in the war. Half of them were Polish Jews, and about 90% of the deaths were non-military in nature.

How did Poland end communist rule?

Labour turmoil in 1980 produced the independent trade union Solidarity, which by 1989 triumphed in Poland's first partially free elections since the war. Poland became the first communist country to re-establish itself as a liberal democracy, and Solidarity candidate Lech Wałęsa won the presidency in 1990.

What is the highest point in Poland?

Poland's highest point is the northwestern summit of Rysy at 2,500 metres in elevation, located in the Tatra Mountains along the country's southern border. The lowest point sits 2.2 metres below sea level at Marzęcino on the Vistula Fens.

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  149. 149webRuling Civic Platform Wins Parliamentary Elections in PolandAndrzej Turkowski
  150. 150newsDonald Tusk named next president of European CouncilSuzanne Lynch
  151. 151newsPoland elections: Conservatives secure decisive win25 October 2015
  152. 152newsPoland's populist Law and Justice party win second term in power14 October 2019
  153. 153webRule of Law: European Commission acts to defend judicial independence in Poland
  154. 154newsPoland's Duda narrowly beats Trzaskowski in presidential vote13 July 2020
  155. 155webSituation Ukraine Refugee Situation
  156. 156newsDonald Tusk elected as Polish prime minister11 December 2023
  157. 157newsPoland election: Conservative historian Nawrocki wins presidential vote2 June 2025
  158. 158journalStatistical Yearbook of the Republic of PolandPolish Ministry of Education and Science — Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS) — 2019
  159. 159webCechy krajobrazów Polski – Notatki geografia
  160. 160journalPoland Under Transition and Its New GeographyMirosław Grochowski — Taylor & Francis — 1997
  161. 161bookSecond Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea BasinBACC Editorial Team — Springer — 2015
  162. 162bookInterdisciplinary approaches for sustainable development goalsTymon Zielinski et al. — Springer — 2017
  163. 163bookIslandology: Geography, Rhetoric, PoliticsMarc Shell — University Press — 2014
  164. 164webNajwyższe szczyty w Tatrach Polskich i Słowackich
  165. 165webCzy Rysy mają wysokość 2500 m n.p.m.? Nareszcie znamy dokładne wysokości najwyższych polskich szczytówInstytut Geodezji i Geoinformatyki — Uniwersytet Przyrodniczy — 2022
  166. 166journalSettlement and sustainability in the Polish SudetesLesław Czetwertynski-Sytnik et al. — Springer — 2000
  167. 167webNowy najniższy punkt Polski oficjalnie potwierdzonygeoforum.pl — 5 October 2022
  168. 168bookPolandChristine Zuchora-Walske — ABDO Publishing — 2013
  169. 169bookPolish River Basins and LakesEwa Korzeniewska et al. — Springer International Publishing — 2020
  170. 170inlineMroźny styczeń, ciepły grudzień. Jak ta zima wypada na tle poprzednich?
  171. 171reportClimate of PolandZbigniew Ustrunul et al. — Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMGW) — 2020
  172. 172bookBioenergy Resources and TechnologiesAbdul Kalam Azad et al. — Elsevier — 2021
  173. 173webForest area (% of land area) – Poland
  174. 174bookForests in Poland 2017Wawrzyniec Milewski — State Forests Information Centre — 2017
  175. 175bookApplied Ecology: How agriculture, forestry and fisheries shape our planetJan Frouz et al. — Springer International Publishing — 2022
  176. 176webThat's Polish: Exploring the History of Poland's National EmblemsAlena Aniskiewicz — Adam Mickiewicz Institute — 2016
  177. 177journalHistory of the Aurochs (Bos taurus primigenius) in PolandRokosz, M. — 1995
  178. 178bookEuropean Ungulates and Their Management in the 21st CenturyReidar Andersen et al. — University Press — 2010
  179. 179bookEurope: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues, Volume 4Kevin Hillstrom et al. — ABC-CLIO World geography — 2003
  180. 180bookCross-Border Tourism in Protected Areas: Potentials, Pitfalls and PerspectivesMarius Mayer — Springer — 2019
  181. 181bookEnvironmental law in PolandBarbara Kowalczyk et al. — Kluwer Law International — 2019
  182. 182webBasic information about PolandGovernment of the Republic of Poland
  183. 183webPoland OverviewEuropean Union
  184. 184webPolandCIA
  185. 185bookUstrój polityczny Rzeczypospolitej PolskiejPosłuszny, Jerzy et al. — Wyższa Szkoła Prawa i Administracji. Rzeszowska Szkoła Wyższa. — 2017
  186. 187bookReligion and Law in PolandPiotr Stanisz — Kluwer Law International — 2020
  187. 188webTrump-backed candidate Karol Nawrocki becomes Polish president and could steer a more nationalist course - CBS NewsHaley Ott — 2025-08-06
  188. 189bookFoundations of Law: The Polish PerspectiveWolters Kluwer Polska — 2021
  189. 190bookDemocracy in Poland: Representation, participation, competition and accountability since 1989Anna Gwiazda — Taylor and Francis — 2015
  190. 191bookThe Constitution of Poland: A Contextual AnalysisMirosław Granat et al. — Hart Publishing — 2021
  191. 192bookContract law in PolandPiotr Machnikowski et al. — Kluwer Law International — 2017
  192. 193bookCriminal law in PolandWojciech Jasiński et al. — Kluwer Law International — 2019
  193. 194bookConstitutional law in PolandAgnieszka Bień-Kacała et al. — Kluwer Law International — 2021
  194. 195webPoland The Global State of Democracy
  195. 196webGlobal State of Democracy Indices The Global State of Democracy
  196. 197webHome The Global State of Democracy
  197. 198webLiczba jednostek podziału terytorialnego krajuStatistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS) — 2022
  198. 199bookEuropean Regions, 1870–2020: A Geographic and Historical Insight into the Process of European Integration.Jordi Martí-Henneberg — Springer International Publishing — 2021
  199. 200webPowierzchnia i ludność w przekroju terytorialnym w 2021 rokuGovernment of Poland — Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny) — 2021
  200. 201bookPrivate International Law in PolandEwa Kamarad et al. — Kluwer Law International — 2020
  201. 202webDziennik Ustaw nr 78: The Constitution of the Republic of PolandSejm of the Republic of Poland — National Assembly (Zgromadzenie Narodowe)
  202. 203bookNational Judges As EU Law Judges: The Polish Civil Law SystemUrszula Jaremba — Martinus Nijhoff Publishers — 2013
  203. 204journalHuman Development Indicators – PolandUnited Nations — United Nations Development Programme — 2020
  204. 205webVictims of intentional homicide 1990–2018 – PolandUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime — 2018
  205. 206bookCentral and East European Politics: Changes and ChallengesZsuzsa Csergo et al. — Rowman & Littlefield — 2021
  206. 207bookHistoria Polski, 1505–1764Józef Andrzej Gierowski — Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe — 1986
  207. 208bookThe Making of the European Union: Foundations, Institutions and Future TrendsSten Berglund — Edward Elgar Publishing Press — 2006
  208. 209journalThe Middle Powers in the United Nations SystemG. deT. Glazebrook — University of Wisconsin Press — June 1947
  209. 210bookEurope and America: the end of the transatlantic relationship?Federiga Bindi — Brookings Institution Press — 2019
  210. 211bookThe impact, legitimacy and effectiveness of EU counter-terrorismFiona De Londras et al. — Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group — 2015
  211. 212bookInternational Human Rights Law: An IntroductionDavid S. Weissbrodt et al. — University of Pennsylvania Press — 2010
  212. 213bookCoalition of the unwilling and unable: European realignment and the future of American geopoliticsJohn R. Deni — University of Michigan Press — 2021
  213. 214bookNationalism in Contemporary Europe: Concept, Boundaries and FormsAndrzej Marcin Suszycki — LIT — 2021
  214. 215webPoland and France Sign Historic Security and Cooperation Treaty in NancyThe Chancellery of the Prime Minister — Government of the Republic of Poland — 2025
  215. 216bookProduction Management and Business Development: Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Scientific Conference on Marketing Management, Trade, Financial and Social Aspects of Business.Bohuslava Mihalčová et al. — CRC Press — 2019
  216. 217bookWojsko Polskie w przemianach ustrojowych 1989–2001Jerzy Zalewski — Elipsa — 2002
  217. 218webRaport: Polska armia trzecia w NATO i największa w Unii EuropejskiejPiotr Celej — Gazeta Prawna, INFOR PL S.A. — 2024
  218. 219webPoland is already spending the most on defense in terms of GDP among NATO countriesPolska Agencja Prasowa (PAP) — European Newsroom (ENR) — 2024
  219. 220webEuropa Środkowa i Wschodnia nie kupuje niemieckiej broniJacek Lepiarz — 27 August 2022
  220. 221webQuick and Bold: Poland's Plan To Modernize its ArmyWojciech L. — 29 March 2022
  221. 222reportEksport uzbrojenia i sprzętu wojskowego PolskiGovernment of Poland — Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych MSZ (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) — 2019
  222. 223bookThe Military Balance 2022International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) — Routledge — 2022
  223. 224webDowódca wojsk specjalnych odchodzi ze stanowiska
  224. 225bookPoland's Foreign and Security Policy: Problems of Compatibility with the Changing International OrderRyszard Zięba — Springer International Publishing — 2020
  225. 226webU.S. Security Cooperation With PolandBureau of Political-Military Affairs — U.S. Department of State — 2025
  226. 227webZmiany w nowym roku szkolnymDanuta Starzyńska-Rosiecka — Polish Press Agency PAP — 2024
  227. 228webPotencjał ochronnyBiuro Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego
  228. 229webRozdział 3 – Uprawnienia i obowiązki strażników – Straże gminne. – Dz.U.2019.1795 t.j.
  229. 230webPolicja o zwierzchnictwie nad Strażą Miejską w powiecie dzierżoniowskim
  230. 231webProjekt ustawy o krajowym systemie ratowniczym
  231. 232webUstawa z dnia 25 lipca 2001 r. o Państwowym Ratownictwie Medycznym.
  232. 233webAgencja Wywiadu
  233. 234webAktualnościCentralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne
  234. 235webStatus prawnyJ. S. K. Internet
  235. 236webEconomic forecast for PolandEuropean Commission — 17 November 2025
  236. 237webInflation Report, Monetary Policy CouncilNarodowy Bank Polski (National Bank of Poland)
  237. 238webEmployment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (modeled ILO estimate) – Poland | Data
  238. 239webPoland National Debt 2020
  239. 240webWhy Poland. Guide to doing business in PolandEditorial Office — Kochański & Partners Business Law Firm — 2025
  240. 242webPoland promoted to developed market status by FTSE RussellSeptember 2018
  241. 243webLowest unemployment in the EU. Poland on the podium – Ministry of Family and Social Policy – Gov.pl website
  242. 244webPracujący w rolnictwie, przemyśle i usługach RynekPracy.org
  243. 245bookAnnual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange RestrictionsIMF Monetary and Capital Markets Department — International Monetary Fund — 2022
  244. 246webForeign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$)World Bank
  245. 247webWorld Competitiveness RankingIMD Editorial Office — International Institute for Management Development — 2022
  246. 248bookUnderstanding the Polish Capital MarketDariusz Zarzecki et al. — Routledge — 2022
  247. 249webHundreds of foreign companies taken over by Polish firms over the last decadeDorota Ciesielska-Maciągowska — 5 April 2016
  248. 250inlineThomas White International (September 2011), Prominent Banks in Poland. Emerging Market Spotlight. Banking Sector in Poland (Internet Archive). Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  249. 251inlineWorldbank.org, Global Financial Development Report 2014. Appendix B. Key Aspects of Financial Inclusion (PDF file, direct download). Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  250. 252newsBrain drain claimed 1.7 million youths. So this country is scrapping its income taxIvana Kottasová — 30 July 2019
  251. 253webCountry Comparisons – Exports
  252. 254webExports of goods and services (% of GDP) Data
  253. 255webPolandOEC Data Team — The Observatory of Economic Complexity — 2023
  254. 256webUSGS Silver Production Statistics
  255. 257webWorld Official Gold Holdings - International Financial Statistics, 5 May 20265 May 2026
  256. 258bookTourism Trends and PoliciesOECD — OECD Publishing — 2022
  257. 259webInternational tourism strong despite uncertain economyPress Release — World Tourism Organization UNWTO — 5 November 2012
  258. 260journalWorld Tourism BarometerMay 2023
  259. 261bookThe 50 Greatest Castles and Palaces of the WorldGilly Pickup — Icon Books — 7 March 2019
  260. 262bookPolandNeil Wilson et al. — Lonely Planet — 2005
  261. 263bookDevelopment of Tourism and Travel IndustryRobin Watts et al. — EDTECH — 2018
  262. 264webPAIH | Transport
  263. 265webGeneralna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad
  264. 266bookTransport and Climate Change. New Mitigation and Adaptation StrategiesMarta Borowska-Stefańska; Maxim A. Dulebenets; Szymon Wiśniewski — Springer Nature — 2025
  265. 267webLinie kolejowe w PolsceUrząd Transportu Kolejowego
  266. 268bookSustainable Rail Transport 4: Innovate Rail Research and EducationMarin Marinov et al. — Springer — 2021
  267. 269bookThree decades of Polish socio-economic transformations: geographical perspectivesPaweł Churski et al. — Springer — 2022
  268. 270bookAir Transport and Regional Development Case StudiesAnne Graham et al. — Routledge — 2020
  269. 271bookBaltic Region—The Region of CooperationGennady Fedorov et al. — Springer — 2019
  270. 272webPoland – Countries & RegionsInternational Energy Agency — IEA — 20 May 2022
  271. 273webPoland. Summary of Coal Industry.
  272. 274webEnergy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040)Ministry of Climate and Environment — 2 February 2021
  273. 275bookFrom alchemy to the present day – the choice of biographies of Polish scientistsMałgorzata Nodzyńska et al. — Pedagogical University of Kraków — 2012
  274. 276webNicolaus Copernicus Biography: Facts & Discoveries20 March 2018
  275. 277bookForced Out: The Fate of Polish Jewry in Communist PolandArthur J. Wolak — Arthur Wolak — 12 March 2004
  276. 278webGII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025
  277. 279bookGlobal Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a CrossroadsSoumitra Dutta et al. — World Intellectual Property Organization — 2025
  278. 280journalResearch Institutes In Poland — Evaluation of Their Place and Role in Innovative Politics in PolandRenata Barcikowska — 1 September 2016
  279. 281bookPreliminary results of the National Population and Housing Census 2021Statistics Poland — Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS — 2021
  280. 282bookArea and population in the territorial profileStatistics Poland — Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS — 2021
  281. 283webFertility rate, total (births per woman) – Poland
  282. 284webMedian age
  283. 285webUrban population (% of the population) – Poland
  284. 286webDistribution of population by degree of urbanisation, dwelling type and income group – EU-SILC surveyEuropean Commission — 2020
  285. 287inlineFunkcje Metropolitalne Pięciu Stolic Województw Wschodnich – Markowski
  286. 288inlineWorld Urbanization Prospects – United Nations – Department of Economic and Social Affairs / Population Division, The 2003 Revision (data of 2000)
  287. 289inlineEurostat, Urban Audit database , accessed on 12 March 2009. Data for 2004.
  288. 290webMajor Metropolitan Areas in EuropeWendell Cox — Joel Kotkin and Praxis Strategy Group — 2013
  289. 291inlineEuropean Spatial Planning Observation Network, Study on Urban Functions (Project 1.4.3) , Final Report, Chapter 3, (ESPON, 2007)
  290. 292journalChanges in population density of the urban population in southern Poland in the period 1950–2011 against the background of political and economic transformationIwona Jażdżewska — Sciendo — September 2017
  291. 293bookStruktura narodowo-etniczna, językowa i wyznaniowa ludności Polski. Narodowy Spis Powszechny Ludności i Mieszkań 2011Central Statistical Office — 2015
  292. 294bookThe Concept of the International Migration. Statistics System in Poland.Statistics Poland — Główny Urząd Statystyczny GUS — n.d.
  293. 295newsFilling Poland's labour gap
  294. 296webZezwolenia na pracę cudzoziemcówDepartament Rynku Pracy MRPiPS — 2021
  295. 297webTablice z ostatecznymi danymi w zakresie przynależności narodowo-etnicznej, języka używanego w domu oraz przynależności do wyznania religijnego; spis 2021GUS
  296. 298inlineLudność. Stan i struktura oraz ruch naturalny w przekroju terytorialnym w 2025 r. Stan w dniu 31 grudnia
  297. 299bookObserving eurolects corpus analysis of linguistic variation in EU lawLaura Mori — John Benjamins Publishing Company — 2018
  298. 300actFramework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities1 February 1995
  299. 301bookMultilingualism in the Baltic States: Societal Discourses and Contact PhenomenaSanita Lazdiņa et al. — Springer — 2018
  300. 302bookThe Routledge international handbook of early literacy educationNatalia Kucirkova et al. — Routledge — 2017
  301. 303webAct of 6 January 2005 on national and ethnic minorities and on the regional languagesGłówny Urząd Geodezji i Kartografii (Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography)
  302. 304bookIdentity Strategies of Stateless Ethnic Minority Groups in Contemporary PolandEwa Michna et al. — Springer International Publishing — 2020
  303. 305webObwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 5 kwietnia 2017 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o mniejszościach narodowych i etnicznych oraz o języku regionalnym
  304. 306journalO wyjazdach zagranicznych i znajomości języków obcych.2016
  305. 307webFinal results of the National Population and Housing Census 2021Statistics Poland
  306. 308newsIn Traditionally Catholic Poland, the Young Are Leaving the ChurchFrancis X. Rocca et al. — 19 February 2022
  307. 309bookReligious communities and civil society in EuropeRupert Graf Strachwitz — De Gruyter Oldenburg — 2020
  308. 310webInfographic – Religiousness of Polish inhabitantsStatistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny) — 2015
  309. 311webHow steep is Poland's drop in Mass attendance?Luke Coppen — 18 January 2023
  310. 312bookReligion, Politics, and Values in Poland: Continuity and Change Since 1989Sabrina P. Ramet et al. — Palgrave Macmillan — 26 October 2016
  311. 313bookBeyond the Persecuting Society: Religious Toleration Before the EnlightenmentJohn Christian Laursen et al. — University of Pennsylvania Press — 2011
  312. 314bookSocial and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939Joseph Marcus — De Gruyter Mouton — 2011
  313. 315webNiecierpliwi
  314. 316webPrywatnie leczy się już ponad połowa Polaków16 September 2018
  315. 317webMortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) | Data
  316. 318webImports of Drugs and Medicines by Country4 April 2020
  317. 319webPoland: Country Health Profile 2019 | READ online28 November 2019
  318. 320web“Polish children are gaining weight at the fastest rate in Europe” – interview with Dr. Małgorzata Gałązka-Sobotka30 October 2025
  319. 321webPolish children are gaining weight the fastest in Europe. The cause is improper diet and lack of physical activity2 October 2023
  320. 322webHistory – Jagiellonian University – Jagiellonian University
  321. 323bookLiterary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?Jan IJ. van der Meer — Rodopi — 2002
  322. 324bookGod's Playground: 1795 to the presentNorman Davies — Columbia University Press — 2005
  323. 325webBetter life index. EducationOECD — 2024
  324. 326webPISA publicationsOECD — 2022
  325. 327webZmiany w wychowaniu przedszkolnym - Informacje - Wychowanie przedszkolne w Polsce - wiek, obowiązek, miejsce, opłaty - dlaprzedszkolaka.info
  326. 328webUstawa z dnia 14 grudnia 2016 r.
  327. 329webMATURA 2020 | wymagania na STUDIA | jak wygląda | terminy
  328. 330inlineCentral Statistical Office: Studenci szkół wyższych (łącznie z cudzoziemcami) na dzień 30 XI 2008. Number of students at Poland's institutions of higher education, as of 30 November 2008. Retrieved 13
  329. 331webStudy in Poland
  330. 332webRanking Uczelni Akademickich – Ranking Szkół Wyższych PERSPEKTYWY 2019
  331. 333webBiało-Czerwoni – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia
  332. 334journalPolitical Drama in Poland: The Use of National SymbolsLongina Jakubowska — Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland — 1990
  333. 335webZabytki nieruchome
  334. 336webAlbum "100 pomników historii"
  335. 337webPolandUNESCO World Heritage
  336. 338webObwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 6 marca 2025 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o dniach wolnych od pracy
  337. 339webUstawa z dnia 6 grudnia 2024 r. o zmianie ustawy o dniach wolnych od pracy oraz niektórych innych ustaw
  338. 340webOpłatek i pierwsza gwiazdka czyli wigilijne tradycje
  339. 341webWhy Do Poles Leave One Chair Empty on Christmas Eve?
  340. 342webturoń – słownik języka polskiego i poradnia językowa – Dobry słownik
  341. 343bookEnglish Translations of Korczak's Children's Fiction: A Linguistic PerspectiveMichał Borodo — Springer Nature — 22 February 2020
  342. 344webŚmigus-Dyngus: Poland's National Water Fight Day
  343. 345webSummer in Warsaw | Things You Can Do Only in Summer21 October 2018
  344. 346webThe Briefest History of Polish MusicMaria Anna Harley — University of Southern California — 1997
  345. 347bookIndividuals and Their Social ContextInstitute of Political Studies Polish Academy of Sciences — 31 December 2018
  346. 348bookPolandCharlotte Guillain — Raintree — 2012
  347. 349webPol'and'Rock: Poland's biggest music fest kicks off4 August 2022
  348. 350bookInternational Encyclopedia of Music and CultureJanet Sturman — SAGE Publications — 2019
  349. 351bookDzieje muzyki polskiej w zarysieGrzegorz Michalski — Wydawnictwo Interpress — 1983
  350. 352bookThe Idea of Galicia; History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political CultureLarry Wolff — Stanford University Press — 9 January 2012
  351. 353bookThe Oxford Illustrated History of OperaRoger Parker — University Press — 2001
  352. 354webPolish Tangos: The Unique Interwar Soundtrack to Poland's IndependenceJuliette Bretan — Ministry of Culture and National Heritage — 2017
  353. 355bookThe Polish American EncyclopediaJames S. Pula — MacFarland — 2010
  354. 356bookThe Garland Encyclopedia of World MusicChris Goertzen; James Porter; Timothy Rice — Routledge — 2017
  355. 357webPolonaise, traditional Polish danceUNESCO — 2023
  356. 358bookPublic Ethnomusicology, Education, Archives, & CommerceJeff Titon et al. — Oxford University Press — 2019
  357. 359webLady with an Ermine – by Leonardo Da Vinci
  358. 360bookMadonna: A BiographyMary Cross — Greenwood Publishing Group — 31 August 2017
  359. 361webRanking polskich galerii ze współczesną sztukąPiotr Sarzyński — 12 February 2013
  360. 362bookPolish culture in the Renaissance: studies in the arts, humanism and political thoughtDanilo Facca et al. — University Press — 2013
  361. 363bookHistorical Atlas of Central Europe – 3rd EditionPaul Robert Magocsi — University Press — 2018
  362. 364bookViews of Polish townsWłodzimierz Karczmarzyk — Interpress — 1990
  363. 365bookArchitekturaWitold Szolginia — Sigma NOT — 1992
  364. 366bookInternationalism and the Arts in Britain and Europe at the Fin de SiècleGrace Brockington — Peter Lang — 2009
  365. 367bookPolandRoman Marcinek — Kluszczyński — 2002
  366. 368bookEuropean Culture in DiversityKrystyna Kujawińska-Courtney et al. — Cambridge Scholars — 2011
  367. 369bookCultural Heritage of East Central Europe: A Historical OutlineWojciech Roszkowski — Instytut Studiów Politycznych PAN — 2015
  368. 370bookThe architecture of Poland: a chapter of the European heritageAdam Miłobędzki — International Cultural Centre-Międzynarodowe Centrum Kultury w Krakowie — 1994
  369. 371journalReviewed Work: Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System? by Jan I.J. van der MeerJohn Stanley — 2004
  370. 372bookWalka o polski styl narodowy w architekturzeJan Władysław Rączka — Politechnika Krakowska — 2001
  371. 373bookThe Architecture of Poland: An Historical SurveyZbigniew Dmochowski — Polish Research Centre — 1956
  372. 374bookTourism and Socio-Economic Transformation of Rural Areas: Evidence from PolandJoanna Kosmaczewska et al. — Taylor & Francis — 2021
  373. 375bookRestauro e ricostruzioneAlessandra Centroni — Gangemi Editore — 3 January 2016
  374. 376bookValues in the Polish Cultural TraditionLeon Dyczewski — CRVP — 29 July 2002
  375. 377webThe manuscript with the first ever sentence in Polish has digitalized – News – Science & Scholarship in PolandIdeo Sp. z o.o. – www.ideo.pl
  376. 378webThe first sentence in Polish in the UNESCO register
  377. 379webPolish Libraries – Wiesław Wydra: The Oldest Extant Prose Text in the Polish language. The Phenomenon of the Holy Cross Sermons.
  378. 380bookTrade and Urban Development in Poland: An Economic Geography of Cracow, from Its Origins to 1795F.W. Carter — Cambridge University Press — 2006
  379. 381webDwujęzyczność w twórczości Jana Kochanowskiego
  380. 382bookPropaganda and the Jesuit BaroqueEvonne Levy — University of California Press — April 2004
  381. 383bookThe Encyclopedia of the NovelJohn Wiley & Sons — 2014
  382. 384bookThe Peasant and Communist Past in the Making of an Ecological Region: Podlasie, PolandEunice L. Blavascunas — 2008
  383. 385webThe Joseph Conrad Society (UK) Official Website
  384. 386webThe Joseph Conrad Society of America
  385. 387bookHistorical Dictionary of Science Fiction CinemaM. Keith Booker — Rowman & Littlefield Publishers — 2020
  386. 388webO Wiedźminie i Wiedźmince19 July 2023
  387. 389newsTokarczuk and Handke win Nobel Literature Prizes10 October 2019
  388. 390bookScience of Food Nutrition and HealthVinod Puri — Austin Macauley Publishers — 2023
  389. 391webA Brief History of the BagelAmanda Fiegl — 17 December 2008
  390. 392bookCooking through history: a worldwide encyclopedia of food with menus and recipesMelanie Byrd Hollar et al. — Greenwood — 2020
  391. 393bookRick Steves Snapshot Kraków, Warsaw & GdańskRick Steves et al. — Avalon Publishing — 15 August 2017
  392. 394webgorzała – Słownik języka polskiego PWN
  393. 395webHistory of vodka production, at the official page of Polish Spirit Industry Association (KRPS), 2007
  394. 396webForgotten Beer Styles: GrodziskieJim Hughes — 4 February 2013
  395. 397bookPolish Heritage CookeryRobert Strybel et al. — Hippocrene Books — 31 March 2019
  396. 398webMaks Faktorowicz: Polak, który stworzył kosmetyczne imperium7 February 2013
  397. 399webMaksymilian Faktorowicz – człowiek, który dał nam sztuczne rzęsy
  398. 400webMakeup Masters: The History of Max FactorStella Rose Saint Clair — 12 February 2014
  399. 401webPrzemyski Inglot ma już 400 sklepów na świecieNorbert Ziętal — 13 July 2013
  400. 402webReserved! Polish fashion chain moves into BHS flagship storeSarah Butler — 2 September 2016
  401. 403bookCrossroads of Costume and Textiles in PolandBeata Biedrońska-Słota — National Museum (Muzeum Narodowe) — 2005
  402. 404webThe Wrightsman Collection. Vols. 1 and 2, Furniture, Gilt Bronze and Mounted Porcelain, CarpetsMetropolitan Museum of Art
  403. 405bookPolish Film: A Twentieth Century HistoryCharles Ford et al. — Eurospan — 2009
  404. 406bookHistorical Dictionary of Polish CinemaMarek Haltof — Rowman & Littlefield Publishers — 2015
  405. 407bookPop Culture in Central EuropeJuliana Tzvetkova — ABC-CLIO — 12 October 2017
  406. 408bookPopulist Political Communication in PolandAgnieszka Stępińska et al. — Logos Verlag — 2020
  407. 409webWorld Reading Habits in 2020 InfographicIsabel Cabrera — Global English Editing — 2020
  408. 410bookThe International Encyclopedia of Media Effects, 4 Volume SetWiley — 6 March 2017
  409. 411bookThe Game Industry of PolandJakub Marszałkowski et al. — Polish Agency for Enterprise Development — 2021
  410. 412webFIVB Men's Volleyball World Ranking
  411. 413webFIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship Poland 2014
  412. 414webFinals
  413. 415bookPolska, to tu się zaczęłoDariusz Fedor et al. — Agora — 2009
  414. 416webTennis fever hits Poland as clubs across the country report surge in interestBlanka Konopka — 10 June 2022
  415. 417webPoland wins Hopman Cup as Agnieszka Radwanska and Jerzy Janowicz combine to beat Serena Williams and John Isner in Perth10 January 2015
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