Mongol Empire
In the year 1162, a boy named Temüjin was born on the Mongolian Plateau near Lake Baikal. His father Yesugei had been poisoned by Tatars when the child was still young. Hö'elün, his mother, faced abandonment by their tribe and survival in the harsh steppe environment. She raised him alongside other children while he killed his older half-brother to secure his family position. As an adult, Temüjin formed alliances with Toghrul and Jamukha to retrieve his wife Börte from Merkit raiders. This victory brought him prestige and a considerable following. He defeated Jamukha decisively in 1187 but later took refuge in China. Sponsored by the Jin dynasty, he returned to the steppe in 1196 to lead a successful campaign against the Tatars. By 1201, he won a major battle over a coalition led by Jamukha. In 1202, Temüjin eradicated the Tatars completely. Relations with Toghrul ruptured in 1203, yet he managed to overcome Toghrul and subjugate the Naimans. These victories made him the undisputed ruler of Mongolia. At a kurultai assembly in 1206, the shaman Teb Tenggeri proclaimed him khan of the Great Mongol Nation. Here he assumed the title Genghis Khan.
Genghis reconstituted steppe society by redistributing tribal peoples into units based on the decimal system. His favored followers received command of ninety-five tumens or units of one thousand men. These were subdivided into hundreds and tens. Soldiers traveled with multiple horses allowing them to switch mounts quickly during long campaigns. Each warrior was lightly armored compared to many armies they faced but compensated with superior maneuverability. Forces under the Mongol Empire were trained through nerge traditional hunts that functioned as small unit actions. These hunts involved spreading out in lines to surround entire regions and drive all game within together. Discipline was inculcated during these exercises where none of the animals escaped slaughter. The army included horse archers who were most famous for their skill. Troops armed with lances were equally skilled alongside them. Experienced Chinese engineers built trebuchets and catapults using local resources when needed. A flotilla of barges prevented escape on rivers during attacks against the Muslim Khwarezmshah. All adult males up to age sixty were eligible for conscription into the army. This source of honor drove their tribal warrior tradition forward.
By 1237, the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan the first Kievan Rus principality they attacked. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, they captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They destroyed the army of the Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River. By 1240, all Kievan Rus had fallen except for a few northern cities. Batu Khan overran territories of Bulgars Alans Kypchaks Bashkirs Mordvins Chuvash and other nations of southern Russian steppe. In East Asia there were campaigns into Goryeo Korea but Ögedei's attempt to annex the peninsula met little success. Gojong king of Goryeo surrendered then revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis overseers before moving his court to Ganghwa Island. The advance into Europe continued with invasions of Poland and Hungary. When western flank plundered Polish cities an alliance among Poles Moravians Hospitallers Teutonic Knights Templars assembled forces to halt briefly the Mongol advance at Legnica. The Hungarian army Croatian allies and Knights Templar were beaten by Mongols at banks of Sajo River on the 11th of April 1241. Before Batu could continue to Vienna news of Ögedei death in December 1241 brought halt to invasion.
Möngke died on the 11th of August 1259 while leading his army in southern China where disease ravaged Mongol forces with bloody epidemics. This event began a new chapter requiring decision on a new great khan. Kublai Khan heard of the great khan death at Huai River in China rather than returning to capital he continued advancing into Wuchang area near Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariqboke took advantage of absence of Hulagu and Kublai winning title of great khan for himself with representatives proclaiming him leader at kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned this he summoned own kurultai at Kaiping where nearly all senior princes supported his candidacy over that of Ariqboke. Battles ensued between armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke including forces still loyal to Möngke previous administration. Kublai sent Abishka Chagataid prince loyal to him to take charge of Chagatai realm but Ariqboke captured then executed Abishka having Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia cutting off food supplies causing famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai but Ariqboke rallied re-took capital in 1261. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on the 21st of August 1264 ending civil war.
Mongol unification in 1206 allowed trade routes to form through the empire. Genghis Khan encouraged foreign merchants early in career even before uniting Mongols. Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures serving as diplomats official traders essential for many goods since Mongols produced little themselves. Well-traveled roads linked lands from Mediterranean basin to China greatly increasing overland trade resulting in dramatic stories of travelers. Western explorer Marco Polo traveled east along Silk Road while Chinese monk Rabban Bar Sauma made comparably epic journey venturing from home of Khanbaliq Beijing as far as Europe. European missionaries such as William of Rubruck also traveled to Mongol court converting believers or going as papal envoys attempting secure Franco-Mongol alliance. It was rare however for anyone to journey full length of Silk Road. Instead merchants moved products like bucket brigade goods being traded from one middleman another moving from China all way West. Goods moved over such long distances fetched extravagant prices. The Yam mail system had lavishly furnished relay posts known as örtöö set up throughout Empire. A messenger typically traveled from station next receiving fresh rested horse relaying mail ensuring speediest possible delivery. Riders regularly covered per day better than fastest record set by Pony Express six hundred years later.
At time of Genghis Khan virtually every religion found Mongol converts ranging Buddhism Christianity Manichaeism Islam. To avoid strife he set up institution ensuring complete religious freedom though himself shamanist. Under his administration all religious leaders exempted taxation public service. Initially few formal places worship because nomadic lifestyle. However under Ögedei several building projects undertaken in capital. Along palaces Ögedei built houses worship Buddhist Muslim Christian Taoist followers. Dominant religions then Tengrism Buddhism although Ögedei wife Nestorian Christian. Eventually each successor state adopted dominant religion local populations: Mongol-ruled Chinese Yuan dynasty East embraced Buddhism Shamanism while three Western khanates adopted Islam. Early thirteenth century saw significant developments science due patronage Khans. Roger Bacon attributed success Mongols world conquerors principally devotion mathematics. Astronomy one branch Khans took personal interest. According Yuanshi Ögedei twice ordered armillary sphere Zhongdu repaired 1233 1236 also ordered revision adoption Damingli calendar 1234. He built Confucian temple Yelü Chucai Karakorum around 1236 where Yelü created regulated calendar Chinese model.
In 1347 Genoese possessor Caffa great trade emporium Crimean Peninsula came under siege army Mongol warriors command Janibeg. After protracted siege during which Mongol army reportedly withering disease they decided use infected corpses biological weapon. Corpses catapulted city walls infecting inhabitants. Genoese traders fled transferring plague via ships south Europe from where it rapidly spread. Total number deaths worldwide pandemic estimated 75 to 200 million up 50 million deaths Europe alone. Population China fell half during fifty years Mongol rule. Before invasion territories Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants after conquest completed 1279 census showed drastic decline. The fall Mongol Empire fourteenth century led collapse political cultural economic unity along Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized western end route Byzantine Empire sowing seeds Turkic culture later crystallize Ottoman Empire Sunni faith. In East Han Chinese overthrew Yuan dynasty 1368 launching own Ming dynasty pursuing policy economic isolationism. Golden Horde lost all western dominions including modern Belarus Ukraine Poland Lithuania between 1342 and 1369. Muslim non-Muslim princes Chagatai Khanate warred each other 1331 to 1343 disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set puppet khans Transoxiana Moghulistan.
Continue Browsing
Common questions
When was Temüjin born and where did he grow up?
Temüjin was born in the year 1162 on the Mongolian Plateau near Lake Baikal. He grew up facing abandonment by his tribe after his father Yesugei was poisoned by Tatars.
How did Genghis Khan organize the military structure of the Mongol Empire?
Genghis reconstituted steppe society by redistributing tribal peoples into units based on the decimal system. His favored followers received command of ninety-five tumens or units of one thousand men subdivided into hundreds and tens.
What happened to the Kievan Rus principalities during the Mongol invasion of Europe?
By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan the first Kievan Rus principality they attacked. By 1240 all Kievan Rus had fallen except for a few northern cities after Batu Khan overran territories of Bulgars Alans Kypchaks Bashkirs Mordvins Chuvash and other nations of southern Russian steppe.
Who won the civil war between Kublai Khan and Ariqboke and when did it end?
Kublai Khan won the civil war against his brother Ariqboke who surrendered at Shangdu on the 21st of August 1264 ending the conflict. Battles ensued between armies of Kublai and those of his brother including forces still loyal to Möngke previous administration.
How did the Mongol Empire facilitate trade and communication across Eurasia?
Mongol unification in 1206 allowed trade routes to form through the empire with well-traveled roads linking lands from Mediterranean basin to China. The Yam mail system had lavishly furnished relay posts known as örtöö set up throughout Empire ensuring speediest possible delivery.
What was the impact of the siege of Caffa on global population numbers?
The siege of Caffa in 1347 led to the transfer of plague via ships south Europe where it rapidly spread causing an estimated 75 to 200 million deaths worldwide. Population China fell half during fifty years Mongol rule before invasion territories Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants after conquest completed 1279 census showed drastic decline.