Syria

• 1. Ancient Civilizations And Empires

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  The Natufian culture became the first to settle permanently around the 11th millennium BC. This shift marked the beginning of agriculture and cattle breeding in human history. Archaeologists found round stone towers at Tell Qaramel dated to 10650 BC, making them the oldest structures of their kind globally. Rectangular houses from the Mureybet culture appeared during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. People used containers made of stone, gyps, and burnt lime known as Vaisselle blanche. Obsidian tools discovered from Anatolia provided evidence of early trade networks. The ancient cities of Hamoukar and Emar played vital roles during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Civilization in Syria ranks among the most ancient on earth, possibly preceded only by Mesopotamia. The Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib emerged around 3500 BC as an indigenous civilization. Ebla built its fortune through trade with Sumer, Assyria, Akkad, Hurrian, and Hattian peoples. Gifts from Pharaohs confirmed contact with Egypt during excavations. A trading agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and Abarsal stands as one of the earliest written texts from Syria. Scholars classify the Eblaite language as an East Semitic language closely related to Akkadian. Long wars with Mari weakened Ebla before Sargon of Akkad ended its domination in the first half of the 23rd century BC. By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled in northern eastern parts while Amorites dominated the rest. Syria became known as the Land of the Amurru to Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. Ugarit arose circa 1800 BC near modern Latakia and developed the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until destruction by Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC during the Late Bronze Age collapse. Aleppo and Damascus remain among the oldest continuously inhabited cities globally. Yamhad dominated northern Syria for two centuries before being conquered by Hittites circa 1600 BC. Syria became a battleground for empires including Hittite, Mitanni, Egyptian, Middle Assyrian, and Babylonian forces. The Battle of Kadesh reached its zenith in 1274 BC between Egyptians and Hittites. Aramean tribes gained control of much interior territory after Assyria declined in the late 11th century BC. They founded states such as Bit Bahiani, Aram-Damascus, Hamath, and Luhuti. The region became known as Aramea or Aram following these developments.

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• 2. Islamic Conquest And Caliphates

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  Muhammad ordered his followers to invade Dumatul Jandal in July 626 due to intelligence about highway robbery. William Montgomery Watt claims this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at that time. By 640, Khalid ibn al-Walid led the Rashidun army to conquer Syria. The Umayyad dynasty placed the capital of their empire in Damascus during the mid-7th century. Arabic became the dominant language under Umayyad rule, replacing Greek and Aramaic of the Byzantine era. The Umayyad dynasty fell in 750 when the Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad. In 887, Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids before being replaced by Ikhshidids and Hamdanids. Sayf al-Dawla founded the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo. Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian, and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 during the Crusades. The Principality of Antioch served as the primary Crusader state in Syria. Nizari Ismailis occupied the coastal mountainous region known historically as Assassins. Salah ad-Din conquered Syria largely between 1175 and 1185 after a century of Seljuk rule. Aleppo fell to Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260 while Damascus fell in March. The Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in Galilee. Baibars made Damascus a provincial capital upon becoming leader. Sunqur al-Ashqar attempted to declare himself ruler of Damascus but was defeated on the 21st of June 1280. The Second Battle of Homs occurred on the 29th of October 1281 and was won by the Mamluks. Timur invaded Syria in 1400, sacking Aleppo and capturing Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. City inhabitants were massacred except for artisans deported to Samarkand. Timur conducted massacres of the Assyrian Christian population, greatly reducing their numbers. By the end of the 15th century, discovery of a sea route ended the need for overland trade through Syria.

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• 3. Ottoman Rule And Colonial Mandate

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  The Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1516, conquering Syria and incorporating it into its empire. Damascus became the major entrepot for Mecca, acquiring holy character due to countless pilgrims passing through on hajj. Each ethno-religious minority constituted a millet under Ottoman administration. Religious heads administered personal status laws and performed civil functions within communities. Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt renounced loyalty to the empire in 1831, overrunning Ottoman Syria and capturing Damascus. He brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate southern Syrian plains and rebuilt Jaffa with veteran soldiers. By 1840, he surrendered the area back to Ottomans. Tanzimat reforms applied from 1864 carved out provinces including Aleppo, Zor, Beirut, and Damascus Vilayets. The Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon was created alongside the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem. During World War I, the Ottoman Empire suffered defeat losing control of the entire Near East. Genocide against indigenous Christian peoples occurred as Armenian genocide and Assyrian genocide reached Deir ez-Zor. French diplomat François Georges-Picot and British Mark Sykes agreed secretly on post-war division via the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. A border ran almost straight from Jordan to Iran initially before oil discovery led to negotiations ceding Mosul region to Britain. Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920 with this border recognized internationally. A short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria emerged under Faisal I of Hashemite family in 1920. His rule ended after only months following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after San Remo conference proposed League of Nations mandate. General Gouraud chose to cultivate existing divisions rather than build a unified Syrian nation. Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt breaking out in Druze Mountain spreading to engulf all Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won battles at al-Kafr on the 21st of July 1925 and al-Mazraa on 2, the 3rd of August 1925. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal regaining many cities though resistance lasted until spring 1927. The French sentenced al-Atrash to death but he escaped to Transjordan eventually pardoned returning in 1937. Syria negotiated independence treaty in September 1936 electing Hashim al-Atassi as first president. The treaty never came into force because French Legislature refused ratification. Syria came under Vichy France control in 1940 before British and Free French occupied it during Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Pressure forced French evacuation of troops in April 1946 leaving republican government formed during mandate.

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• 4. Modern Statehood And Political Turmoil

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  Syrian forces invaded Palestine in May 1948 together with other Arab states attacking Jewish settlements immediately. President Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed troops to destroy Zionists aiming to prevent establishment of Israel. Government recruited former Nazis including Schutzstaffel members to build armed forces and military intelligence capabilities. Defeat triggered March 1949 coup d'état by Colonel Husni al-Za'im described as first military overthrow since World War II. Another overthrow followed quickly by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi deposed by Colonel Adib Shishakli within same year. Shishakli abolished multipartyism but was overthrown in 1954 restoring parliamentary system. Power concentrated increasingly in military and security establishment due to weak institutions and economic mismanagement. Fertile ground existed for Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements representing disaffected society elements. Religious minorities demanded radical reform particularly among those seeking change. Syria signed pact with Soviet Union in November 1956 directly resulting from Suez Crisis giving communist foothold exchange for equipment. Turkey worried about increased strength of Syrian military technology potentially attempting retake İskenderun. United Nations heated debates lessened threat of war. On the 1st of February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced merging creating United Arab Republic. All Syrian political parties ceased overt activities including communists therein. A group of Ba'athist officers formed secret Military Committee alarmed by party poor position and union fragility. Initial members included Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid, Captain Hafez al-Assad. Syria seceded from union on the 28th of September 1961 after coup terminating political union. Land reform measures introduced legislation regulating agriculture laborers and landowners relationships governing ownership use private state domain land directing peasant economic organization reorganizing agricultural production under state control. First law passed Law 134 on the 4th of September 1958 responded concern about peasant mobilization expanding peasants rights strengthening sharecroppers agricultural laborers position relative to landlords. Ministry of Labor Social Affairs implemented new laws allowing regulation working conditions especially women adolescents setting hours work introducing minimum wage principle equitable division harvest sharecroppers obligated landlords honor written oral contracts establishing collective bargaining containing provisions workers compensation health housing employment services acknowledged landlord syndicate formation rights. The 8th of March 1963 Ba'athist coup culminated instability following 1961 takeover engineered by Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party members led Michel Aflaq Salah al-Din al-Bitar. New cabinet dominated Ba'ath members marking radical break modern Syrian history after which Ba'ath party monopolized power establishing one-party state shaping socio-political order enforcing state ideology. On the 23rd of February 1966 neo-Ba'athist Military Committee carried intra-party rebellion against Old Guard imprisoning President Amin al-Hafiz designating regionalist civilian government the 1st of March. Nureddin al-Atassi became formal head state while Salah Jadid effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970 when deposed Hafez al-Assad Minister Defense. Power struggle culminated November 1970 Corrective movement installing Hafez al-Assad strongman government transforming Ba'athist party state into dictatorship marked pervasive grip party armed forces secret police media education religious cultural spheres civil society aspects. Alawite loyalists assigned key posts military forces bureaucracy intelligence ruling elite cult personality revolving Assad family core tenet Ba'athist ideology espoused dynasty destined rule perennially. Syria initiated Yom Kippur War the 6th of October 1973 Egypt Israel reversing initial gains pushing deeper Syrian territory village Quneitra largely destroyed Israeli army. Islamist uprising Muslim Brotherhood aimed government attacking civilians off-duty personnel leading security forces kill civilians retaliatory strikes climax reached 1982 Hama massacre killing more than 2,000 to 40,000 people Islamists civilians killed Syrian military troops Ba'athist paramilitaries described single deadliest act violence perpetrated any state population modern Arab history.

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• 5. Civil War And Regime Collapse

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  Public demonstrations across Syria began the 26th of January 2011 developing nationwide uprising demanding resignation Assad overthrow government end nearly five decades Ba'ath Party rule. Syrian Army deployed spring 2011 quell uprising besieging several cities though unrest continued. Witnesses reported soldiers refusing open fire on civilians summarily executed by Syrian Army. Government denied reports defections blaming armed gangs causing trouble. Early autumn 2011 civilians army defectors formed fighting units beginning insurgency campaign against Syrian Army insurgents unified Free Syrian Army banner fought increasingly organized fashion civilian component opposition lacked organized leadership. Arab League United States European Union Gulf Cooperation Council states condemned use violence protesters China Russia avoided condemning applying sanctions saying methods could escalate foreign intervention. Military intervention ruled out most countries Arab League suspended Syria membership December 2011 proposal peaceful resolution crisis sent observer mission. By 2024 civil war resulted more than 600,000 deaths pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% total civilian casualties. Between March 2011 March 2021 more than 306,000 civilians killed civil war massive refugee crisis estimated 7.6 million internally displaced July 2015 UNHCR figure over 5 million refugees July 2017 registered UNHCR. War worsened economic conditions more than 90% population living poverty 80% facing food insecurity. Islamic State Iraq Syria ISIS won battles rebel factions government 2014 seizing control large parts Eastern Syria prompting US-led coalition launch aerial bombing campaign providing ground support supplies Syrian Democratic Forces Kurdish-dominated coalition People's Defense Units YPG. August 2016 Turkey launched multi-pronged invasion northern Syria response creation Kurdish-led Autonomous Administration North East Syria Rojava fighting ISIS government forces process. Turkey helped establish Syrian National Army SNA remnants Free Syrian Army Iran later Russia intervened behalf Assad government defeat ISIS attack both SDF SNA. Rebel offensive began the 27th of November 2024 Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham HTS led Islamist group took control Aleppo lightning offensive prompting retaliatory airstrike campaign regime forces supported Russian aviation assets strikes targeted population centers hospitals Idlib resulting at least 25 deaths White Helmets rescue group. Brigadier General Hossam Louka director General Security Directorate attempted stage coup Damascus the 30th of November Bashar Moscow foiled younger brother Maher. Fierce clashes erupted Hama province the 4th of December Syrian army engaged rebel forces bid halt advance key city Hama Government forces claimed counteroffensive air support pushing back rebels including HTS around six miles city despite reinforcements rebels captured city the 5th of December fighting led widespread displacement nearly 50,000 people fleeing area over 600 casualties reported including 104 civilians. Rebel forces reached outskirts Homs the 5th of December beginning three-day battle city simultaneously HTS-coordinated mass uprising coalition Druze tribes opposition captured southern cities Sweida Daraa the 6th of December rapidly advanced northwards encircle Damascus following day. Homs captured early morning the 8th of December leaving major regime strongholds between rebel advance Damascus Cut off Alawite heartland Tartus Latakia governorates faced rebel pincer north south bearing down Damascus no hope foreign intervention Assadist authority remaining territories disintegrated. Syrian Arab Armed Forces melted away soldiers abandoned weapons uniforms deserting border Iraq Lebanon Opposition forces captured capital Damascus the 8th of December toppling Bashar al-Assad government ending family's 53-year-long rule country. Assad fled Moscow family granted asylum.

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• 6. Geography And Natural Resources

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  Syria climate varies humid Mediterranean coast semi-arid steppe zone arid desert east. Country consists mostly arid plateau northwest part bordering Mediterranean fairly green. Al-Jazira northeast Hauran south important agricultural areas. Euphrates Syria most important river crosses country east. Syria one fifteen states comprise cradle civilization land straddles northwest Arabian plate. Petroleum commercial quantities first discovered northeast 1956. Most important oil fields those al-Suwaydiyah Karatchok Rmelan near al-Hasakah al-Omar al-Taym fields near Deir ez-Zor. Fields natural extension Iraqi fields Mosul Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria leading natural resource chief export after 1974. Natural gas discovered field Jbessa 1940. Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions Middle East steppe Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests Southern Anatolian montane conifer deciduous forests Mesopotamian shrub desert. Country had 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score 3.64/10 ranking 144th globally out 172 countries. Syria divided 14 governorates subdivided 61 districts further divided sub-districts. Latakia Idlib Aleppo Raqqa Al-Hasakah Tartus Hama Deir ez-Zor Homs Rif Dimashq Damascus Quneitra Daraa Sweida governorates listed capitals.

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