Timur
Timur was born in the 1320s near Kesh, a city that now stands as Shahrisabz in Uzbekistan. His name meant Iron in Chagatai, his mother tongue, and it shared roots with Genghis Khan's birth name of Temüjin. He belonged to the Barlas tribe, a Mongol group that had settled in Transoxiana and adopted Turkic language and Islamic faith over generations. While Timurid histories later claimed he descended from Tumbinai Khan, an ancestor of Genghis Khan, no contemporary evidence supports this direct lineage during his lifetime. Some sources suggest his father Taraghai was a minor noble, while others imply he may have understated his family's status to make his rise seem more remarkable. His mother Tekina Khatun remains shrouded in mystery; one account claims she came from lowly origins, another links her to the Yasa'uri tribe, and yet another suggests she was a descendant of the legendary Persian hero Manuchehr. A few writers even proposed she might be related to Genghis Khan, but these claims lack solid proof.
By about 1360, Timur had emerged as a military leader commanding mostly Turkic tribesmen within Transoxiana. He joined forces with Qazaghan, who destroyed Volga Bulgaria, and led expeditions into Khorasan with a thousand horsemen. After Qazaghan's death, power struggles erupted among claimants to sovereignty. Tughlugh Timur of Kashgar invaded, interrupting the infighting, and Timur initially negotiated before allying with him. He received Transoxiana as a reward and later repelled an invasion attempt by Tughlugh's son Ilyas Khoja using a smaller force. During this period, Timur and his brother-in-law Amir Husayn shifted from fugitive companions to bitter rivals. Their relationship deteriorated when Husayn refused to carry out orders to eliminate Ilya Khoja near Tashkent. Timur gained followers in Balkh through acts of generosity, sharing belongings with merchants, clergy, aristocrats, and agricultural workers. In contrast, Husayn alienated people through heavy taxes and selfish spending on elaborate structures. Around 1370, Husayn surrendered to Timur and was assassinated, allowing Timur to be proclaimed sovereign at Balkh. He married Husayn's wife Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan, which enabled him to become imperial ruler of the Chagatai tribe.
Timur spent thirty-five years conducting wars across Asia, expanding territory beyond his home base. His campaigns reached the Caspian Sea, Ural River, Volga River, Persia, Baghdad, Karbala, Northern Iraq, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, Egypt, India, and Anatolia. One of his most formidable opponents was Tokhtamysh, a Mongol ruler descended from Genghis Khan who became khan of both eastern Kipchak and the Golden Horde. After quarreling over Khwarizm and Azerbaijan, Timur supported Tokhtamysh against Russians before turning on him. In 1382, Tokhtamysh invaded Muscovy and burned Moscow. Later, in 1395, Timur advanced toward Moscow but withdrew after Russian chroniclers claimed a vision of the Virgin defending the city convinced him to turn back. He destroyed Sarai, capital of the Golden Horde, and Astrakhan, disrupting Silk Road trade routes. The Golden Horde lost power following these defeats. Timur also attacked Ismaili villages in Anjudan and Mazandaran, flooding tunnels beneath fortresses to crush resistance. His invasion of Delhi Sultanate began in late 1398 when he crossed the Indus River with ninety thousand men. He sacked Tulamba, massacred inhabitants, captured Multan after six months of siege, and defeated Malik Jasrat at Sutlej river. On the 17th of December 1398, he fought near Delhi, slaughtering one hundred thousand slaves beforehand out of fear they might revolt.
Timur employed systematic terror as an integral element of his strategy to prevent bloodshed by discouraging resistance. When Herat refused to surrender during his Persian campaign, he reduced it to rubble and massacred most citizens; it remained ruined until Shah Rukh ordered reconstruction around 1415. In 1387, after Isfahan revolted against taxes by killing tax collectors and soldiers, Timur ordered a massacre where death tolls ranged between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand. An eyewitness counted more than twenty-eight towers constructed from approximately fifteen hundred heads each. He spared artistic and educated individuals while selectively targeting rebellious populations. During the Siege of Baghdad in June 1401, he ordered every soldier to return with at least two severed human heads. When warriors ran out of enemies to kill, some beheaded their own wives. His army destroyed Sarai, capital of the Golden Horde, and disrupted Silk Road trade routes. At Smyrna in December 1402, a mass beheading was carried out by his soldiers. The city of Delhi reeked of decomposing bodies after three days of uprising within its walls, with heads erected like structures and bodies left for birds. Scholars estimate his military campaigns caused millions of deaths across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Timur interacted with scholars and poets such as Ibn Khaldun, Hafez, and Hafiz-i Abru during his reign. He spoke several languages including Chagatai, an ancestor of modern Uzbek, Mongolian, and Persian, which he used for diplomatic correspondence. In Samarkand, under guidance of distinguished scholars, Timur learned Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish languages, though Ahmad ibn Arabshah claimed he could not speak Arabic. He held Ali and Ahl al-Bayt in high regard while punishing Shias who desecrated memories of Sahaba. Timur enjoyed company of scholars and was tolerant and generous toward them. A story recounts how he summoned Hafez, who wrote: For the black mole on thy cheek I would give the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara. Timur upbraided him saying By the blows of my well tempered sword I have conquered greater part of world to enlarge Samarkand and Bukhara, my capitals and residences; and you pitiful creature would exchange these two cities for a mole. Hafez replied It is by similar generosity that I have been reduced as you see to present state of poverty. The king was pleased by witty answer and poet departed with magnificent gifts. Timur also invented Tamerlane chess variant played on ten by eleven board.
Timur maintained numerous diplomatic exchanges with European states especially Spain and France. In 1402, during Battle of Ankara, Spanish ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and Fernando de Palazuelos were already at his court. Later Timur sent Chagatai ambassador Hajji Muhammad al-Qazi to Kingdom of León and Castile with letters and gifts. Henry III of Castile responded with famous embassy led by Ruy González de Clavijo between 1403 and 1406. On return, Timur affirmed he regarded King of Castile as very own son. French archives preserve the 30th of July 1402 letter from Timur to Charles VI suggesting traders go to Asia written in Persian. A May 1403 Latin transcription contains another letter from Miran Shah announcing victory over Bayezid I at Smyrna. Byzantine John VII Palaiologos sent Dominican friar August 1401 to pay respect and propose paying tribute instead of Turks once defeated. European rulers like Charles VI of France and Henry IV of England praised Timur because they believed he saved Christianity from Turkic Empire in Middle East. His victory allowed Christian merchants remain safe and enabled pilgrims right of passage to Holy Land.
Timur preferred fighting battles in spring but moved east via Timur's Gates during uncharacteristic winter campaign. He died en route on February 17 or 18, 1405 at Farab before reaching Chinese border while encamped farther side of Syr Daria. After his death body was embalmed with musk and rose water wrapped in linen laid ebony coffin sent Samarkand where buried. His tomb Gur-e-Amir still stands though heavily restored recently. Timur had twice appointed heir apparent both outlived him: first son Jahangir died illness 1376 second grandson Muhammad Sultan died battle wounds 1403. Only when dying did he appoint Muhammad Sultan younger brother Pir Muhammad successor. Pir Muhammad failed gain sufficient support relatives triggering bitter civil war among descendants multiple princes pursuing claims. Not until 1409 youngest son Shah Rukh overcame rivals took throne as Timur's successor. In June 1941 Soviet anthropologists exhumed body examining remains found facial characteristics displayed typical Mongoloid features East Asian modern terms. At height Timur tall era examinations confirmed lame withered right arm due injuries right thighbone knitted together kneecap configuration knee joint suggests kept leg bent all times therefore pronounced limp appeared broad-chested hair beard red.
Common questions
When and where was Timur born?
Timur was born in the 1320s near Kesh, a city that now stands as Shahrisabz in Uzbekistan. His name meant Iron in Chagatai, his mother tongue.
How did Timur become sovereign of the Chagatai tribe?
Timur became sovereign at Balkh around 1370 after his rival Amir Husayn surrendered and was assassinated. He married Husayn's wife Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan, which enabled him to rule the Chagatai tribe.
What were the major military campaigns conducted by Timur between 1382 and 1405?
Timur invaded Muscovy in 1382, destroyed the Golden Horde capital Sarai in 1395, sacked Delhi in late 1398, and fought the Battle of Ankara in 1402. His campaigns reached the Caspian Sea, Ural River, Volga River, Persia, Baghdad, Karbala, Northern Iraq, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, Egypt, India, and Anatolia.
Why did Timur employ systematic terror during his wars across Asia?
Timur employed systematic terror as an integral element of his strategy to prevent bloodshed by discouraging resistance. When cities like Herat and Isfahan refused to surrender or revolted against taxes, he ordered massacres that resulted in death tolls ranging from one hundred thousand to two hundred thousand people.
How many diplomatic exchanges did Timur maintain with European states?
Timur maintained numerous diplomatic exchanges with European states especially Spain and France. He sent letters to Charles VI of France on the 30th of July 1402 and received embassies led by Ruy González de Clavijo between 1403 and 1406.
When and how did Timur die and who succeeded him?
Timur died en route on February 17 or 18, 1405 at Farab before reaching the Chinese border while encamped farther side of Syr Daria. His youngest son Shah Rukh overcame rivals and took throne as Timur's successor in 1409 after a bitter civil war among descendants.