Kipchaks
The name Kipchak carries a meaning that shifts depending on which historical voice speaks it. Some traditions claim the word translates to hollow tree, suggesting an origin story where an ancestress gave birth inside such a tree. Other scholars point to Siberian dialects where qıpčaq means angry or quick-tempered. Peter Golden finds a better match in words for good fortune combined with an adjectival suffix. The original form remains a matter of contention and speculation among historians today. Chinese histories mention the tribe only occasionally during the eighth century as part of the Second Turkic Khaganate. These records describe their homeland as lying over 30,000 li from China. They noted the region produced excellent horses and described people who slept armed and armored. The text also mentions blue eyes and red hair among some groups. This physical description contrasts sharply with other accounts of East Asian features found in burials.
When the Turkic Khaganate collapsed around the eighth century, these people moved into the Altai region before expanding further. They joined the Kimek confederation and traveled toward the Irtysh, Ishim, and Tobol rivers. By the ninth century, Ibn Khordadbeh recorded them holding autonomy within this larger union. Sighnaq on the Syr Darya river became their urban center while others pushed westward. Three distinct groups emerged from this movement: those in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, those near the Syr Darya associated with the Khwarazmian dynasty, and Siberian tribes later known as Siberian Tatars. The early eleventh century saw massive migrations toward the Islamic world starting in 1017 or 1018. From the second half of the twelfth century onwards, names Cumans and Kipchaks became interchangeable for the whole confederacy. Some scholars suggest the Cumans conquered the Kipchaks while others believe they simply led a joint tribal alliance. The western Kipchak tribes absorbed Oghuz, Pecheneg, ancient Bashkir, and Bulgar peoples during this era.
The Mongols defeated the Alans after convincing the Kipchaks to desert them through pointing at shared language and culture. Köten led forty thousand families into Hungary where King Bela IV granted refuge in return for Christianization. These refugees fled Hungary again after Köten was murdered. Large groups crossing the Danube between 1239 and 1240 wandered until Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes invited them to serve the Empire of Nicaea. He settled some in Anatolia to protect against foreign invasions. These Kipchaks preserved their identity even after the Ottomans conquered the lands they lived in. Another migration occurred during the Chobanids Beylik period when Hüsameddin Emir Çoban returned from Crimea with slaves. A few families were brought to Sinop by sea via Sudak and settled in the West Black Sea region. Maritime trade intensified with Crimea under the Isfendiyarids Beylik. Defeated Kipchaks mainly entered Mongol ranks while others fled westward. The nomadic Kipchaks became main targets when Mongols crossed the Volga in 1236.
A late thirteenth-century dictionary known as the Codex Cumanicus preserves words in Kipchak, Cuman, and Latin. This document stands as the most important surviving record of their language. Turkic-speaking Mamluks in Egypt stimulated compilation of Arabic dictionaries and grammars that remain vital for studying old Turkic languages. When Armenian diaspora members moved from Crimea to the Polish-Ukrainian borderland at the end of the thirteenth century, they carried Kipchak with them. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a literary form called Armeno-Kipchak existed among communities in Lviv and Kamianets-Podilskyi areas. The literary form of the Cuman language became extinct in Hungary during the eighteenth century. However, Cuman in Crimea evolved into the central dialect of Crimean Tatar. Radlov believed Cuman was closest to the Mishar dialect of the Tatar language. Regional Mishar dialects of Sergachsky district are named faithfully close to original Kipchak today.
Skulls with East Asian features often appear in burials associated with Kipchaks across Central Asia and Europe. Russian anthropologist Oshanin noted Mongoloid phenotypes prevalent among modern Kazakh and Qirghiz skulls found in Ukraine. A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined remains of two males buried between one thousand AD and twelve hundred AD. One male carried paternal haplogroup C2 and maternal haplogroup F1b1b showing increased East Asian ancestry. The other male carried maternal haplogroup D4 displaying pronounced European ancestry. Lee and Kuang suggest high frequency of Y-DNA haplogroup R-M73 among Karakypshaks explains why some medieval Kipchaks had blue eyes or red hair. Another subclade C2b1b1 ranging from fifty-nine point seven percent to seventy-eight percent may explain Inner Asian physiognomy in eastern Ukraine kurgans. Chinese histories describe Turkic-speaking peoples as typically possessing East or Inner Asian physiognomy while occasionally having West Eurasian traits.
The Kipchaks practiced Tengrism before Muslim conversion occurred near Islamic centers. Some groups converted to Christianity around the eleventh century at Georgian suggestion during conflicts against Muslims. King David IV baptized many and married a daughter of Kipchak Khan Otrok. From eleven-twenty onwards, a national Christian church existed with important clergy. Following Mongol conquest, Islam rose in popularity among Kipchaks of the Golden Horde. The Mamluks were partly drawn from Kipchaks and Cumans who settled in Egypt. These people became mercenaries in Europe and slave warriors after their defeat. A great number were baptized at request of Georgian King David IV who also married a daughter of Kipchak Khan Otrok. This religious shift happened alongside political alliances that shaped their future across Eurasia.
Modern Northwestern branch of Turkic languages is often called the Kipchak branch today. Languages in this branch are mostly considered descendants of the Kipchak language spoken by these ancient people. Groups traditionally included are Manavs, Karachays, Balkars, Siberian Tatars, Nogays, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Volga Tatars, Lipka Tatars and Crimean Tatars. Qypshaq develops from Kipchak in Kazakh language as one constituent tribe of Middle Horde confederation. Some descendants include Bashkirian clan Qipsaq. There is even a village named Kipchak in Crimea where the name occurs as surname in Kazakhstan. Al-Mansur Qalawun served as Mamluk sultan of Egypt ruling from twelve-seventy-nine to twelve-ninety. Baibars was another Mamluk sultan of Egypt reigning from twelve-sixty to twelve-seventy-seven with Kipchak ancestry. El Temür became chancellor of China's Mongol-led Yuan dynasty while Nasir ad-Din Qabacha ruled Multan as Sultan.
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Common questions
What does the name Kipchak mean according to historical sources?
The meaning of the name Kipchak varies by source, with some traditions claiming it translates to hollow tree while other scholars suggest it means angry or quick-tempered in Siberian dialects. Peter Golden proposes a better match involving words for good fortune combined with an adjectival suffix.
When did the Mongols defeat the Alans and how many Kipchak families fled to Hungary under Köten?
The Mongols defeated the Alans after convincing the Kipchaks to desert them through pointing at shared language and culture. Köten led forty thousand families into Hungary where King Bela IV granted refuge in return for Christianization before they were forced to flee again after his murder.
Which document preserves the most important surviving record of the Kipchak language from the late thirteenth century?
A late thirteenth-century dictionary known as the Codex Cumanicus preserves words in Kipchak, Cuman, and Latin. This document stands as the most important surviving record of their language alongside Turkic-speaking Mamluk dictionaries compiled in Egypt.
What genetic evidence supports East Asian ancestry among medieval Kipchaks found in Ukraine burials?
A genetic study published in Nature on the 2nd of May 2018 examined remains of two males buried between one thousand AD and twelve hundred AD showing increased East Asian ancestry. One male carried paternal haplogroup C2 and maternal haplogroup F1b1b while another displayed pronounced European ancestry with maternal haplogroup D4.
Who were the Mamluk sultans of Egypt who had Kipchak ancestry and when did they rule?
Al-Mansur Qalawun served as Mamluk sultan of Egypt ruling from twelve-seventy-nine to twelve-ninety and Baibars was another Mamluk sultan reigning from twelve-sixty to twelve-seventy-seven with Kipchak ancestry. These leaders were part of a group where many Kipchaks became mercenaries or slave warriors after their defeat by Mongols.