Jataka tales
In the second century before the common era, a woodpecker removed a bone from a lion's throat on the railings of an Indian stupa. This image marks one of the earliest known depictions of Jātaka stories, which are voluminous narratives about the previous lives of Gautama Buddha. The term appears in Buddhist literary schemas called the nine component genres of the Buddha's teaching as early as this period. Scholars date the verse portions of these tales to the fifth century BCE while later prose parts were added up to the third century CE. These texts were originally transmitted in Prakrit languages and various forms of Sanskrit before spreading to Central Asian dialects like Khotanese and Tocharian. Some of the first Chinese translations appeared around 247 CE by Kāng Sēnghuì working in Nanking. The oldest specimens of fully elaborated narratives exist within the Vinayapiñakas and Sūtrapiñakas of different Buddhist schools. Many narratives passed down in almost identical form across canons suggest they predate schisms between major religious groups. A. K. Warder notes that these tales served as precursors to legendary biographies composed at much later dates.
The largest known collection is the Jātakatthavaññanā of the Theravada school included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Pali Canon. This text contains 547 poems arranged roughly by increasing number of verses with commentary providing context for the stanzas. Other traditions produced different collections such as the Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāghika Lokottaravāda school or the Avadānaśataka dating from the second to sixth centuries CE. A highly influential Sanskrit work called the Jātakamālā by Aryaśūra includes only 34 stories but uses sophisticated poetic devices. Later authors like Haribhațța and Gopadatta imitated this style writing their own jātakamālās in classical Sanskrit campū genre blending prose and verse. The Cariyapitaka treatise on bodhisattva paramis contains just 35 jātaka while Kumāralāta's Kalpanāmañdītikā Driștapankti exists only in Chinese translation despite having Sanskrit fragments. Kșemendra wrote a unique text completely in verse around 1036, 1065 CE that influenced Tibetan traditions significantly. Apocryphal tales belonging to the Paññasa Jātaka collection adapted to fit local cultures in South East Asian countries show how flexible these narratives remained over time.
A common threefold plot schema structures many of these stories containing a narrative in the present with Buddha figures alongside a narrative in the past showing a life before birth. An identification link connects past protagonists with present ones revealing the Buddha's identity usually at the story's end. In Suttapitaka versions the Buddha appears as someone of high rank rather than an animal though Vinaya sources depict him as creatures too. Recurring characters include Devadatta acting generally as a villain plus family members like Yasodharā and Rāhula. Virtues called perfections such as generosity or compassion serve as lessons taught through each tale. Some stories illustrate mistakes committed by the bodhisattva leading to karmic retribution demonstrating past imperfections instead of virtues. The format suggests original inclusion benefited monks and nuns who sometimes reached high spiritual realization after listening. Simple formats made them easily adaptable for laypersons repackaged as artistic entertainment protective chants or chronicle literature. Even though some view them as propaganda for illiterate practitioners no historical evidence supports this claim regarding their primary audience.
Illustrations found on the Bharhut stupa railing date from the late second to first century BCE alongside inscriptions marking early Jātaka art. Similar tales appear in murals at Ajanta caves and Silk Road sites like Kucha during the pre-Tang period between 421, 640 CE. Burmese Buddhism features extensive traditions including illustrations at Ananda Temple depicting 554 tales specifically. Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Faxian reported locations associated with these stories including four great stupas where Buddha ransomed doves gave away eyes heads bodies. Sites discussed include Pushkalavati Mangalura Hadda Mountain Sarvadattaan plus areas linked to Vessantara-jātaka narratives. Numerous Indian Buddhist archaeological sites contain illustrations such as Amaravati Bagh Caves Goli Kanaganahalli Mathura Nagarjunakonda Sanchi. Outside India Borobudur Dunhuang Polonnoruwa Anuradhapura Bagan city Nakhon Pathom hold significant examples too. Theravada Buddhist worlds widely display jātaka illustrations especially of the last ten canonical Pali collection stories adorning temples wats key sites. These artworks functioned as teaching devices generating merit for lay Buddhists particularly around festivals like Vesak.
Chinese pilgrim Yijing visiting India in the seventh century recorded that jātaka plays were performed throughout five countries of ancient India. In Tibet the Viśvāntara-jātaka transformed into a popular play called Dri med kun ldan alongside Nor bzań or Sudhana and Prince Mañicūda Lokānanda tales. Longer tales like The Twelve Sisters and Vessantara Jataka remain performed in dance theatre puppetry formal recitation across Theravada countries today. Celebrations associate with particular holidays on lunar calendars used by Thailand Myanmar Sri Lanka Laos nations. Recitation of the Vessantara Jataka remains an important ceremony continuing to this day within these regions. Stories adapted to fit local cultures show how flexible narratives remained over centuries while serving both entertainment and religious functions. Some scholars conclude that Jātaka reciters formed their own division of reciters separate from other monastic groups. The art of putting classic Jātakas into Thai verse continues as a living tradition maintained by contemporary practitioners.
Similar stories appear in Jainism focusing on Mahavira's path to enlightenment through previous lives including animal forms and encounters with past liberated beings. A major difference exists since Mahavira receives predictions but does not make vows to become jina unlike bodhisattva Gautama making vows. Hindu Pañcatantra fables dated around 200 BCE share similarities though lacking equivalent ideas about bodhisattva paths found elsewhere. Islamic authors adopted Buddhist jātakas retelling them as Christian narratives such as Balawhar wa-Būdāsf becoming Barlaam and Joasaph. Shia scholar Ibn Bābūya adapted a jātaka story in the tenth century creating new versions for different audiences. These adaptations demonstrate how flexibility contributed to lasting popularity across diverse cultural boundaries throughout history. Many stupas in Nepal northern India mark locations from tales reported by Chinese pilgrims discussing four great stupas plus others like Pushkalavati Mangalura Hadda Mountain Sarvadattaan. Such traditions promoted legitimization of Buddhism in regions outside India while allowing easy transport re-localization without specific place references.
Up Next
Continue Browsing
Common questions
What are Jataka tales and when were they first depicted?
Jataka tales are voluminous narratives about the previous lives of Gautama Buddha. The earliest known depictions appear on railings of an Indian stupa from the second century before the common era.
When did scholars date the verse portions of Jataka stories to exist?
Scholars date the verse portions of these tales to the fifth century BCE while later prose parts were added up to the third century CE. These texts were originally transmitted in Prakrit languages and various forms of Sanskrit before spreading to Central Asian dialects like Khotanese and Tocharian.
Which collection contains the largest number of Jataka poems and how many does it have?
The largest known collection is the Jātakatthavaññanā of the Theravada school included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Pali Canon. This text contains 547 poems arranged roughly by increasing number of verses with commentary providing context for the stanzas.
Where can one find early illustrations of Jataka stories from the late second to first century BCE?
Illustrations found on the Bharhut stupa railing date from the late second to first century BCE alongside inscriptions marking early Jātaka art. Similar tales appear in murals at Ajanta caves and Silk Road sites like Kucha during the pre-Tang period between 421, 640 CE.
How did Chinese pilgrims contribute to the documentation of Jataka locations and performances?
Chinese pilgrim Yijing visiting India in the seventh century recorded that jātaka plays were performed throughout five countries of ancient India. Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Faxian reported locations associated with these stories including four great stupas where Buddha ransomed doves gave away eyes heads bodies.