Free to follow every thread. No paywall, no dead ends.
Ashoka: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Ashoka
In the eighth year of his reign, a man who had spent his life conquering the earth suddenly stopped to weep over the blood he had spilled. This was Ashoka, the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, who transformed from a ruthless conqueror known as Chandashoka, or Ashoka the Fierce, into a devout follower of Buddhism known as Dhammashoka, or Ashoka the Righteous. Before this moment, his empire stretched from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra, but the conquest of Kalinga changed everything. The Major Rock Edict 13 records that during this war, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action, many times that number perished, and 150,000 men and animals were carried away as captives. Ashoka wrote that the slaughter, death, and deportation caused during the conquest of a country were painful and deplorable to him, and that he considered the suffering caused to religious people and householders even more deplorable. This remorse was not merely a rhetorical flourish; it marked the beginning of a radical shift in policy that would define the rest of his life. He devoted himself to the propagation of dhamma, or righteous conduct, which became the major theme of his edicts. The edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism, establishing a large number of stupas, patronizing the Third Buddhist council, supporting Buddhist missionaries, and making generous donations to the sangha. His existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the Brahmi script, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors. The State Emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, and his wheel, the Ashoka Chakra, is adopted at the center of the National Flag of India.
The Bloody Path to Power
Ashoka was not the crown prince, and his ascension to the throne was disputed and bloody. According to the Ashokavadana, his father Bindusara hated him for his rough and unappealing skin, and the ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500 ministers. The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana, and that only his uterine brother Tissa was spared. The Dipavamsa states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later. The Vamsatthapakasini adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother. Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne. It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, in their attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives, suggesting that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka, or indicating that Bindusara, who disliked Ashoka, wanted him to fail in Takshashila. Ashoka's inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him. While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period. According to the Ashokavadana, when Ashoka was young, his father hated him for his rough and unappealing skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel. At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realized that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice, left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath. While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila and governing Ujjain. This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital.
Common questions
Who was Ashoka the Mauryan emperor?
Ashoka was the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty who reigned from 269 to 232 BCE. He transformed from a ruthless conqueror known as Chandashoka into a devout follower of Buddhism known as Dhammashoka. His empire stretched from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east with its capital at Pataliputra.
When did Ashoka conquer Kalinga and what happened after?
Ashoka conquered the Kalinga region during his eighth regnal year. The Major Rock Edict 13 records that 100,000 men and animals were killed in action and 150,000 men and animals were carried away as captives. This event caused Ashoka to repent violence and mark the beginning of a radical shift in policy that defined the rest of his life.
How did Ashoka die and what was his personal life like?
Ashoka died four years after his chief empress Asandhimitta who died four years before him. Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka including Devi, Asandhimitra, Padmavati, Karuvaki, and Tishyarakshita. His personal life was complex and controversial with legends describing his relationships with multiple wives and children.
What did Ashoka do to spread Buddhism across his empire?
Ashoka sent out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in border areas including Sri Lanka, Kashmir, Gandhara, and the land of the Yonas. He constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas throughout the earth in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He also made donations to the sangha and supported Buddhist missionaries during his reign.
Did Ashoka make Buddhism the state religion of his empire?
There is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka. His edicts emphasize tolerance of all sects and he dedicated caves to non-Buddhist ascetics like the Ajivikas. Ashoka appointed dhamma-mahamatta officers whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas.
When was Ashoka's Brahmi script deciphered and by whom?
The Brahmi script in which Ashoka's edicts were written remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century. Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten until this decipherment. The decipherment established Ashoka's reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors.
Even before his conversion to Buddhism, Ashoka was known for his cruelty, earning him the name Chandashoka, or Ashoka the Fierce. The Ashokavadana describes several of his cruel acts, including the burning of 500 of his concubines to death as punishment for chopping the flowers and branches of his namesake tree. Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of Jambudvipa, was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika, or Girika the Fierce, and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra called Ashoka's Hell. The jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners. The 5th-century Chinese traveler Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveler Xuanzang claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's Hell. The Mahavamsa also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism. However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers. Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors, who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle. In an attempt to dramatize this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion. Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th regnal year, and the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism. Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga. On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th, 7th regnal years. The Buddhist legends make no mention of the Kalinga campaign. Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism before the Kalinga war. Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorizing that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the Middle Way. Some earlier writers believed that Ashoka dramatically converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga. However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a gradual process rather than a dramatic event. For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year, five years after the Kalinga campaign, he states that he had been an upasaka, or lay Buddhist, for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower.
The Eighty-Four Thousand Stupas
Ashoka's devotion to Buddhism led to a massive construction project that spanned his empire. Both Mahavamsa and Ashokavadana state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas. According to the Mahavamsa, this activity took place during his fifth, seventh regnal years. The Ashokavadana states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver, cat's eye, and crystal. He ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas throughout the earth, in towns that had a population of 100,000 or more. He told Elder Yashas, a monk at the Kukkutarama monastery, that he wanted these stupas to be completed on the same day. Yashas stated that he would signal the completion time by eclipsing the sun with his hand. When he did so, the 84,000 stupas were completed at once. The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka: Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India; Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India; Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India; Barabar Caves, Bihar, India; Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India; Takshashila University, Takshashila, Pakistan; Bhir Mound, Takshashila, Pakistan; Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India; Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India; Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan; Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India; Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan. Ashoka himself began the construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day. The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas, or monasteries, rather than the stupas to house the relics. Like Ashokavadana, the Mahavamsa describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities. It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dharma. Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth, ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dharma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighboring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka. The edicts also state that during his tenth, eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days. By his 12th regnal year, he had started inscribing edicts to propagate dharma, having ordered his officers to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching dharma. By the next year, he had set up the post of the dhamma-mahamatra. During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.
The Missions to the World
Ashoka's influence extended far beyond the borders of his empire through a series of Buddhist missions. In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa, who is patronized by Ashoka, sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the border areas. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras: Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala, and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas, or Greeks, Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries: Mahinda to Sri Lanka, Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara, Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala, Rakkhita to Vanavasa, Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka, Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra, Maharakkhita to the Greek country, Majjhima to the Himalayas, Soña and Uttara to Suvaññabhūmi. The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her. The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the rainy season. Ashoka's Pillar Edicts suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini, the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni. The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a dhamma victory by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated. Indologist Etienne Lamotte argues that the dhamma missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this dhamma was not same as Buddhism. Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in the Buddhist legends. Other scholars, such as Erich Frauwallner and Richard Gombrich, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical. According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the Vinaya Nidana mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at Bhilsa, near Vidisha. These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka. According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about dhamma is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism. Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect. Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the artisan guilds who supported Buddhist establishments.
The Paradox of Tolerance
Despite his devotion to Buddhism, Ashoka's edicts emphasize tolerance of all sects. A legend in the Buddhist text Vamsatthapakasini states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronize Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects. However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12, emphasize tolerance of all sects. Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honors people of all faiths. In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them. In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka. None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his Queen Karuvaki, while the emperor is known to have donated the Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas. There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa. Similarly, the Lumbini, or Rumminidei, inscription states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth. Ashoka appointed the dhamma-mahamatta officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects. Ashoka's Minor Rock Edict 1 contains the phrase amissā devā. According to one interpretation, the term amissā derives from the word amrsha, or false, and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in true and false gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word amiśra, or not mingled, and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by the adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans. Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of Dharma, a term that refers to the teachings of Gautama Buddha in the Buddhist circles. However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths or Nirvana. The word Dharma has various connotations in the Indian religions, and can be generally translated as law, duty, or righteousness. In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word Dharma has been translated as eusebeia, or Greek, and qsyt, or Aramaic, which further suggests that his Dharma meant something more generic than Buddhism. The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant a moral polity of active social concern, religious tolerance, ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war. For example, he abolished the death penalty, planted banyan trees and mango groves, and constructed resthouses and wells along the roads. He restricted the killing of animals in the imperial kitchen, limiting the number of animals killed to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed. He provided medical facilities for humans and animals, and encouraged obedience to parents, generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending. He commissioned officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged, and promoted the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next. Modern scholars have variously understood this dhamma as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a sort of universal religion, or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Ashoka instituted a new category of officers called the dhamma-mahamattas, who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma. Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century. The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings. This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century Muslim Tughlaq emperor Firuz Shah Tughlaq. According to Shams-i Siraj's Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi, after the king had these pillar transported from Topra and Mirat to Delhi as war trophies, these Brahmins told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero Bhima. According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's Advice to Sigala and his other sermons.
The Family of Blood and Faith
Ashoka's personal life was as complex and controversial as his public policies. Various sources mention five consorts of Ashoka: Devi, or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari, Asandhimitra, Padmavati, Karuvaki, and Tishyarakshita. Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions; she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the imperial officers to record her religious and charitable donations. According to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki. According to the Mahavamsa, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him. It states that she was born as Ashoka's empress because in a previous life, she directed a pratyekabuddha to a honey merchant, who was later reborn as Ashoka. Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the Dasavatthuppakarana, the so-called Cambodian or Extended Mahavamsa, possibly from 9th, 10th centuries, and the Trai Bhumi Katha, 15th century. These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her karma. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks. At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favorite empress, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his imperial seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the imperial seal. The Trai Bhumi Katha claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas. According to Mahavamsa, after Asandhamitta's death, Tissarakkha became the chief empress. The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita. The Divyavadana mentions another empress called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince Kunala. As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi, or Vidisha-Mahadevi, as a prince in central India. After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at Vidisha than move to the imperial capital Pataliputra. According to the Mahavmsa, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi. The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word samvasa to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple. Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become Ashoka's chief empress in Pataliputra after his ascension. The Dipavamsa refers to two children of Ashoka and Devi: Mahinda and Sanghamitta. Sons Tivara, the fourth son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions. According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a second son named Kunala. Kunala had a son named Samprati. The Sri Lankan tradition mentions a son called Mahinda, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother, or Vitashoka or Vigatashoka, rather than his illegitimate son. The Divyavadana mentions the crown-prince Kunala, alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a second son of Ashoka and empress Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara. The Rajatarangini mentions Jalauka as a third son of Ashoka. According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a Bhikkhunī. A section of historians, such as Romila Thapar, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points: The name Sanghamitta, which literally means the friend of the Buddhist order, is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration. The Mahavamsa states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins. According to the Mahavamsa, she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun. The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child. Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a kshatriya named Devapala. According to the Ashokavadana, Ashoka had an elder half-brother named Susima. According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven days, Tissa realized that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventuality of death. He then left the palace, and became an arhat. The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realized that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an arhat. Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behavior. The brother then retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built for him within Pataliputra. The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a non-Buddhist Jain, and killed during a massacre of the Jains ordered by Ashoka.