Shiva
The Sanskrit word shiva means auspicious, propitious, gracious, and kind. Monier-Williams published this definition in his 1899 dictionary of the language. Folk etymology breaks the root into śī meaning in whom all things lie, and va meaning embodiment of grace. The Rigveda uses the term as an epithet for several deities including Rudra. Another interpretation links the name to the root rud meaning to cry or howl. This suggests a translation of the wild one or the fierce god. R K Sharma translates it as terrible based on the adjectival form raudra. The Vishnu Sahasranama interprets Shiva as the Pure One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakriti. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word meaning red noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun. Rudra is also called Babhru which means brown or red in the Rigveda. The highest reverence appears in epithets like Mahadeva meaning Great God and Maheshvara meaning Supreme Lord. At least eight versions of the Shiva Sahasranama exist listing many names derived from aspects of the deity. The Shri Rudram Chamakam hails him by many names in a devotional hymn.
The oldest literary attestation of Shiva-related tradition is the associated Vedic minor deity Rudra. Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. Howard Morphy states these figures are likely those of hunting parties with animals. An Indus Valley seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro shows a large central figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position. Sir John Marshall named this figure Pashupati meaning Lord of Animals. Scholars such as Gavin Flood and Doris Meth Srinivasan express doubts about this suggestion. Asko Parpola states other archaeological finds show similar figures interpreted as seated bull. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on worship of Shiva. Numismatics research suggests numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire dated 30 to 375 CE were images of a god probably Shiva. The earliest iconic artworks may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad dates between 400 and 200 BCE presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahabhasya written in the 2nd century BCE. Shaiva literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE through the 13th century particularly in Kashmir and Tamil traditions.
Shaivism is one of four major sects of Hinduism alongside Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Smarta Tradition. Followers called Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all the creator preserver destroyer revealer and concealer of all that is. The theology includes both monist Advaita and devotional Dvaita traditions such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta. Tantric texts ignore mythologies related to Shiva and develop esoteric practices. Historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas co-existed with Vajrayana Buddhist rituals engaging in esoteric practices. They revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls begging with empty skulls and sometimes using meat as part of ritual. The Krama sub-tradition focused on esoteric rituals around the Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva combined with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva. In the Smarta tradition Shiva is one of five deities considered equivalent set in a quincunx pattern for Panchayatana puja. Philosophically this practice emphasizes that all idols are icons to help focus on aspects of Brahman rather than distinct beings. Adi Shankara popularized many Panchayatana mandalas from the Gupta Empire period. One set from Nand village dated to Kushan Empire era pre-300 CE includes Shiva Vishnu Surya Brahma and one unclear deity.
Shiva is traditionally represented with distinctive attributes including a third eye crescent moon and serpent garland. His body is covered with ashes known as bhasma or vibhuti representing impermanence of material existence. Matted hair appears in epithets Kapardin meaning endowed with matted hair. A blue throat results from drinking Halahala poison churned up from Samudra Manthana. The sacred Ganga flows from his matted hair making him Gangadhara Bearer of the river. He sits upon tiger skin and wears Vasuki the second king of naga as an ornament. A trident called Trishula represents three aspects creator preserver and destroyer. A small hourglass drum known as damaru is held during his famous dancing representation. Rudraksha rosary beads symbolize grace mendicant life and meditation. Nandi bull serves as his mount reflecting his name Pashupati Lord of Animals. Mount Kailasa in Himalayas is his traditional abode conceived as resembling a Linga. The 10th century five-headed Sadashiva form exists in Cambodia. The oldest known archaeological lingam dates to 3rd-century BCE from Gudimallam. Twelve major temples are called Jyotirlinga meaning linga of light located across India.
Maha Shivaratri means Great Night of Shiva observed once a year in late winter February or March. It marks remembrance of overcoming darkness and ignorance in life and world meditation about polarities of existence. Devotees keep awake all night chanting prayers remembering Shiva fasting doing Yoga and meditating on ethics. Others visit temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines offering milk fruits flowers fresh leaves and sweets. Some communities organize special dance events marking Shiva as lord of dance. Kartik Purnima commemorates Shiva's victory over three demons known as Tripurasura. Thiruvathira festival in Kerala celebrates Parvati meeting Shiva after her long penance. Hindu women perform Thiruvathirakali accompanied by folk songs about longing for Shiva's affection. Chithirai festival in Madurai around April May celebrates wedding of Minakshi and Shiva. Teej is celebrated by girls and women in monsoon season with group singing dancing and prayers. Kumbha Mela cycles every 12 years at four pilgrimage sites within India moving to next site after three years gap. Millions gather at confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna
in Prayaga renamed Allahabad during Mughal rule. Umarkot Shiv Mandir in Pakistan hosts three-day celebration attended by around 250,000 people.
In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka meaning noble lord. He is conceptualized as kind spiritual teacher first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts mirroring Dakshinamurti aspect. Batara Guru's wife in Southeast Asia is same Hindu deity Durga who has complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations. In Javanese puppetry wayang books Batara Guru is king of gods regulating and creating world system. Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal. Medieval-era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa and Janardana Vishnu. This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia where Buddha considered younger brother of Shiva. Worship became popular in Central Asia through influence of Hephthalite Empire and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and Kingdom of Yutian found from wall painting at Penjikent. The worship spread to regions including Java and Bali especially in modern diaspora communities outside India.
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Common questions
What does the Sanskrit word shiva mean according to Monier-Williams?
The Sanskrit word shiva means auspicious, propitious, gracious, and kind as published by Monier-Williams in his 1899 dictionary of the language.
When did the Shaiva tradition focused on worship of Shiva begin?
The period from 200 BC to 100 AD marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on worship of Shiva. Numismatics research suggests numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire dated 30 to 375 CE were images of a god probably Shiva.
Who is considered the creator preserver destroyer revealer and concealer of all that is in Shaivism?
Followers called Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all the creator preserver destroyer revealer and concealer of all that is. The theology includes both monist Advaita and devotional Dvaita traditions such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta.
Where is Mount Kailasa located and what is its significance for Shiva?
Mount Kailasa in Himalayas is his traditional abode conceived as resembling a Linga. The oldest known archaeological lingam dates to 3rd-century BCE from Gudimallam.
What date does Maha Shivaratri occur each year and how do devotees observe it?
Maha Shivaratri means Great Night of Shiva observed once a year in late winter February or March. Devotees keep awake all night chanting prayers remembering Shiva fasting doing Yoga and meditating on ethics.