Stupa
Archaeologists in India have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials. These include megalithic burial sites associated with the Indus Valley Civilization. Broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials at these locations. Scholars note structural and functional features of the stupa with both pre-Mauryan-era cairn and pre-historic megalithic round mound burials. Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated at Dholavira. They consist of a deep and wide rock-cut chamber surrounded by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers. The exterior of Tumulus-1 bears a 10-mm-thick plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry. Some authors suggest stupas emerged from megalithic mound burials with chambers which likely represent proto-stupas. Conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE appear in Phrygia and Lydia. Tombs of Amrit in Phoenicia date to the 5th century BCE. These forms may have been inspirations for later stupas.
Emperor Ashoka ruled from 273 to 232 BCE according to Buddhist tradition. He recovered the relics of the Buddha from earlier stupas except from the Ramagrama stupa. Ashoka erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. Many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka such as Sanchi or Kesariya. He also erected pillars with his inscriptions near these sites. The first known appearance of the word stupa is from an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar. This inscription spells the word thube in Pali using the Brahmi script. Decorated stupas appeared soon after 125 BCE following attempts at Sanchi Stupa No.2. Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha followed at Bharhut in 115 BCE. Bodh Gaya received decoration around 60 BCE while Mathura saw work between 125 and 60 BCE. Amaravati developed further during the 1st to 2nd century CE.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara since Buddhism spread to Central Asia. The stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in later development of related forms in China Korea and Japan. Butkara Stupa became monumentalized with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE. Loriyan Tangai stupas appeared in the 2nd century CE with elongated shapes and many narrative reliefs. The Jaulian stupa took a near-pyramidal form in the 2nd century CE. Bhamala Stupa featured a cruciform type with flights of stairs in four cardinal directions by the 4th century CE. The second Kanishka Stupa reached a towering design between the 4th and 5th century CE. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya dates to the Gupta period in the 5th century CE. A Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple discovered in Kumrahar suggests the pyramidal structure existed in the 2nd century CE based on Kharoshthi inscriptions. This truncated pyramid design marked the evolution from aniconic stupa dedicated to relics to iconic temple with multiple images.
Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches known as torana reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at Sanchi which operated from the 3rd century BCE to the 11th century CE. In Tibet the stupa became the chorten while pagoda refers to buildings in East Asia. Asian words for pagoda include tā in Chinese t'ap in Korean tháp in Vietnamese and tō in Japanese. These terms are thought to derive from the Pali word thupa. The type of tower-like stupa visible in the second Kanishka Stupa is thought to be the precursor of tower stupas in Turkestan. The Songyue Pagoda dates to 523 CE and is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model. Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Thailand reaches 100 meters in height making it the second tallest extant stupa in the world. Ruwanwelisaya in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka stands among the tallest ancient stupas.
The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown forms the top of the spire while his head becomes the square at the base. The body takes the vase shape and legs become four steps of the lower terrace. The base serves as his throne. Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism the stupa may represent five purified elements according to Buddhism. The square base represents Earth. The hemispherical dome or vase represents water. The conical spire represents fire. The upper lotus parasol and crescent moon represent air. The sun and dissolving point represent wisdom. Borobudur monument in Java Indonesia contains rows of bell-shaped stupas symbolizing Arūpajhāna which means sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself remains empty symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment.
To build a stupa Dharma transmission and ceremonies known to a Buddhist teacher are necessary. Small clay votive offerings called tsatsas fill most of the treasury. Mantras written on paper are made into thin rolls and put into small clay stupas. One layer of tsatsas is placed in the treasury and empty space between them filled with dry sand. Another layer of tsatsas is made on the new surface until entire space fills completely. The Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain contains approximately 14,000 tsatsas. Jewellery and other precious objects also placed in treasury though symbolic value matters more than market price. An important element in every stupa is Tree of Life. This wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras placed in central channel during ceremony. Participants hold colorful ribbons connected to Tree of Life making positive wishes stored within it. Future benefits from building stupa include fortunate rebirths rich family birth beautiful body long happy life. Destroying stupa creates massive negative karmic imprints leading to serious future problems.
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Common questions
What is the historical origin of the stupa according to archaeological evidence in India?
Archaeologists have observed that early Buddhist stupas were built near pre-historic megalithic burial sites associated with the Indus Valley Civilization. Broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials at these locations, and scholars note structural features similar to pre-Mauryan-era cairn mounds.
When did Emperor Ashoka erect 84000 stupas to distribute Buddha relics across India?
Emperor Ashoka ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE according to Buddhist tradition and erected 84000 stupas to distribute the relics. The first known appearance of the word stupa is from an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar which spells the word thube in Pali using the Brahmi script.
How did the Gandharan stupa influence architecture in China Korea and Japan during the 2nd century CE?
The stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa became very influential in the later development of related forms in China Korea and Japan. Butkara Stupa received Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE while Loriyan Tangai stupas appeared in the 2nd century CE with elongated shapes and narrative reliefs.
What does the shape of the stupa symbolize regarding the five purified elements in Buddhism?
The square base represents Earth, the hemispherical dome or vase represents water, and the conical spire represents fire. The upper lotus parasol and crescent moon represent air while the sun and dissolving point represent wisdom.
Which stupa in Thailand reaches 100 meters in height as a tower-like structure?
Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Thailand reaches 100 meters in height making it the second tallest extant stupa in the world. This type of tower-like stupa is thought to be the precursor of tower stupas in Turkestan and derives from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.