Western literature

• 1. Classical Foundations And Medieval Continuity

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  In 1385, a painter captured Boethius teaching his students in an illuminated manuscript that still exists today. This image preserves the memory of a 6th-century Christian philosopher who kept Latin traditions alive after the Western Roman Empire collapsed. Writers like Cassiodorus and Symmachus ensured that liberal arts flourished at Ravenna under Theodoric. Gothic kings surrounded themselves with masters of rhetoric and grammar to maintain cultural continuity. Lay schools remained open in Italy, hosting scholars such as Magnus Felix Ennodius and Arator. Later medieval universities including Bologna, Padua, and Naples helped spread culture across the region. These institutions prepared the ground for new vernacular literature to emerge from the ashes of classical learning. Affection for Rome's memory combined with political preoccupation to shape early Italian literary development. The earliest vernacular tradition appeared in Occitan, spoken in northwest Italy during the 12th century. A tradition of lyric poetry arose in Poitou before spreading southward to reach Italy by the end of that same century. The first troubadours practicing in Italy came from elsewhere but found ready patrons among northern Italian aristocracy. Native Italians soon adopted Occitan as their vehicle for poetic expression. Among early patrons were the House of Este, the Da Romano family, House of Savoy, and the Malaspina clan. Azzo VI of Este entertained troubadours including Aimeric de Belenoi and Peire Raimon de Tolosa from Occitania. Rambertino Buvalelli from Bologna became one of the earliest Italian troubadours. Beatrice, daughter of Azzo VI, served as an object of courtly love for these early poets. Her brother Azzo VII later hosted Elias Cairel and Arnaut Catalan. In 1218, Rambertino received appointment as podestà of Genoa where he likely introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city. Genoa subsequently developed a flourishing Occitan literary culture over the following decades. The margraves of Montferrat, Boniface I, William VI, and Boniface II, patronized Occitan poetry throughout their reigns. Genoese troubadours included Lanfranc Cigala, Calega Panzan, Jacme Grils, and Bonifaci Calvo. Genoa became the birthplace of the podestà-troubadour phenomenon involving men who wrote political poetry in Occitan while serving multiple cities. Rambertino Buvalelli held this distinction as the first podestà-troubadour. Within Genoa's Guelph faction stood Luca Grimaldi and Luchetto Gattilusio alongside Ghibelline figures Perceval and Simon Doria. The most significant aspect of Italian troubadour activity involved production of chansonniers and composition of vidas and razos. Uc de Saint Circ authored the entire razo corpus plus many vidas. Sordello emerged as the most famous and influential Italian troubadour of his era. These poets maintained connections with rising poetic schools in the Kingdom of Sicily. In 1220, Obs de Biguli appeared as a singer at Emperor Frederick II's coronation. Guillem Augier Novella before 1230 and Guilhem Figueira thereafter served as important Occitan poets at Frederick's court. The Albigensian Crusade devastated Languedoc forcing many troubadours to flee southward into Italy where they began an Italian tradition of papal criticism.

• 2. Renaissance Humanism And Birth Of Modern Prose

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  In 1293 Dante Alighieri wrote La Vita Nuova which idealized love through poetry accompanied by narration and explication. Everything within this collection appears sensual, aerial, and heavenly while real Beatrice becomes supplanted by an idealized vision losing her human nature. The Divine Comedy tells of the poet traveling through three realms of the dead: Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise alongside Latin poet Virgil. An allegorical meaning hides beneath the literal journey symbolizing mankind aiming toward temporal and eternal happiness simultaneously. The forest where the poet loses himself represents sin while the mountain illuminated by sun signifies universal monarchy. Envy manifests as Florence, Pride as France's house, and Avarice as the papal court itself. Virgil embodies reason and empire while Beatrice symbolizes supernatural aid required for attaining God. Dante took materials from theology, philosophy, history, and mythology but especially drew from his own passions including hatred and love. His work ranks among the finest achievements in world literature according to critical consensus. Petrarch became the first humanist and simultaneously the first modern lyric poet during his lifetime. He lived many years at Avignon cursing corruption within the papal court while traveling throughout nearly all Europe. Correspondence with emperors and popes established him as the most important writer of his era. Petrarch's lyric verse differs significantly from Provençal troubadours, earlier Italian poets, and even Dante himself. He functions as a psychological poet examining feelings rendered with exquisite sweetness rather than transcendental grandeur. The Canzoniere contains political poems supposedly addressed to Cola di Rienzi plus several sonnets criticizing Avignon's court. These works demonstrate vigour of feeling alongside broader Italian consciousness compared to Dante's approach. Giovanni Boccaccio shared enthusiastic antiquity appreciation and worship for new Italian literature matching Petrarch's devotion. In 1375 he produced Latin translations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey demonstrating classical learning through De genealogia deorum. This encyclopaedia of mythological knowledge served as precursor to the 15th-century humanist movement. Boccaccio wrote De mulieribus claris establishing himself as first historian of women in Western letters. He also composed De casibus virorum illustrium telling stories of great unfortunates throughout history. His geographical investigations continued previous work using Vibius Sequester as source material for mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, marshes, seas, and their names. Though not inventor of octave stanza form, Boccaccio became first to use it extensively within Teseide, the oldest Italian romantic poem. Filostrato relates Troiolo and Griseida's love story while Ninfale fiesolano narrates Mesola and Africo's romance. Amorosa Visione appears as triplets possibly originating from Divine Comedy influence. Ameto combines prose and poetry becoming Italy's first pastoral romance. Decamerone achieved fame primarily through its hundred novels related by men and women escaping plague near Florence in 1348. Novel writing previously abundant especially in France now assumed artistic shape under Boccaccio's direction. His style imitates Latin yet represents elaborated art achieving character delineation alongside passion observation. Sources likely included both written records and oral traditions available during composition period. Renaissance humanism developed during 14th and early 15th centuries responding to medieval scholastic education challenges. Scholasticism prepared professionals like doctors lawyers theologians teaching logic natural philosophy medicine law theology approved textbooks. Main centers flourished at Florence and Naples emphasizing practical pre-professional scientific studies instead jargon strict practice. Humanists sought creating citizenry including sometimes women speaking writing eloquently clearly through studia humanitatis today known humanities. Grammar rhetoric history poetry moral philosophy formed core curriculum excluding logic but adding Greek history moral philosophy making poetry most important group member. Early Italian humanism continued grammatical rhetorical traditions Middle Ages providing Trivium new ambitious name Studia humanitatis increasing actual scope content significance schools universities extensive literary production. Early humanists Petrarch Coluccio Salutati Leonardo Bruni collected antique manuscripts extensively throughout Italy. By mid-15th century many upper classes received humanist educations enabling rapid acceptance educational program nationwide. Five 15th-century Popes Innocent VII Nicholas V Pius II Sixtus IV Leo X patronized humanist causes. Innocent VII considered first Humanist Pope supporting Leonardo Bruni's work. Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini later becoming Pius II wrote prolific treatise Education of Boys plus essays on girl education. Leone Battista Alberti wrote vernacular texts while Vespasiano da Bisticci absorbed Greek Latin manuscripts composing Vite di uomini illustri valuable historical contents rivaling best 14th-century candour simplicity. Andrea da Barberino crafted beautiful prose Reali di Francia giving romanità coloring chivalrous romances. Belcari Girolamo Benivieni returned mystic idealism earlier times contrasting Cosimo de' Medici Lorenzo de' Medici influence Florence Renaissance particularly seen between 1430 and 1492. Lorenzo gave poetry pronounced realism colors loftiest idealism passing Platonic sonnet impassioned triplets Amori di Venere grandiosity Salve Nencia Beoni Canto carnascialesco lauda. Poliziano united ancient modern popular classical styles freshness imagery plasticity form inimitable Orfeo Stanze per giostra purest elegance Greek sources pervaded art varieties. New poetic style emerged called Canto carnascialesco choral songs accompanied symbolic masquerades common Florentine carnival written ballate metre put mouth party workmen tradesmen singing praises art not very chaste allusions directed Lorenzo himself evening large companies horseback playing singing city. Bacco ed Arianna stands most famous surpassing others mastery art.

• 3. Reformation Poetry And Baroque Excess In Europe

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  In early modern England reformation developed Protestant aesthetic Church of England attempting separation Pope moving away Roman Catholic teachings Johannine literature hymnic densely troped symbolic structured inspired became inspiration many poets period. Group poets bloomed rejection Pope moving away Roman Catholic Church including John Donne George Herbert Thomas Traherne constituting revelatory poetics group. Narrative grew prominent English literature movement toward Johannine theology incorporating increase spiritual themes supernatural forces enchantment narrative guiding writings time. Johannine theology focused divine nature Christ disregarding materialistic human aspect acknowledged Catholic texts. Saint John Evangelist writings integral part Johannine theology coincided Pauline theology early modern era holding influence over English literature time. Author Paul Cefalu argues high Christology seen John Donne stating Gospel Saint John containes all Divinity. P.M. Oliver contends theology indoctrinated poetry revelatory poets expanded created poets themselves. Prominent forms shaping contributed Reformation include significantly structured prose poetry Spenserian stanza sonnet fourteen-line form structured rhyme format pastoral mode genre attributed Edmund Spenser creating collections portraying idealistic rural living. Spenser dubbed English Virgil due particular genre influence. Significant texts 16th-century early modern England primarily religious context Great Bible edited Myles Coverdale First Book Common Prayer published the 15th of January 1549 accepted House Lords book political authoritative changes reformation attempted provide compromise Protestant Roman Catholic beliefs author Thomas Cranmer assisted creating standard version modern English language. In Italy Treaty Cateau-Cambrésis 1559 ushered centuries foreign domination known Secentismo period history Italian literature. Writers deployed complex far-fetched comparisons paradoxes paralogical statements acutezze exhibit writer genius ingenuity provoke wonder reader meraviglia. Giambattista Marino headed school Secentisti especially known epic poem L'Adone declaring Preface La lira wished new leader model other poets secondly surprise shock reader marvellous unusual peregrino qualities valued ingegno acutezza demonstrated far-fetched metaphors conceits often assault reader senses ready eager break literary rules precepts. Marino followers mixed tradition innovation worked existing poetic forms notably sonnet sestina canzone madrigal less frequently ottava rima developed new fluid structures line lengths treated hallowed themes love woman nature making senses sensuality dominant element passions attracted Paduan writers theorists mid-16th century Tasso take centre stage depicted extreme forms martyrdom sacrifice heroic grandeur abysmal existential fear. Marinists took up new themes notably visual musical arts indoor scenes new repertoire references embracing modern scientific advances specialized branches knowledge exotic locations animals similarities Tasso balance form content deliberately unbalanced Marino followers often forget concerns unity poems witness Adone most striking difference intensified role metaphor. Marino followers looked metaphors arrest reader suggesting likeness two apparently disparate things producing startling metamorphoses conceits concetti far-fetched images sending sparks flying creating friction two diverse objects extent new metaphorical freedom reveals new world still open critical debate ways seems make poetry intellectual game puzzle others suggests new ways perceiving describing reality parallel mathematical measures employed Galileo followers experimental sciences. Almost all 17th-century poets more influenced Marinism many secentisti felt influence another poet Gabriello Chiabrera enamoured Greeks made new metres especially imitation Pindar treating religious moral historical amatory subjects Carlo Alessandro Guidi chief representative early Pindarizing current based imitation Chiabrera second Petrarch Italian poetry extolled Gravina Crescimbeni edited poetry 1726 imitated Parini Alfieri attributed self-discovery power Guidi verse Fulvio Testi major exponent Hellenizing strand Baroque classicism combining Horatianism imitation Anacreon Pindar important interesting writings not lyrics collected 1653 extensive correspondence major document Baroque politics letters. Marino work sensual metaphorical language non-epic structure morality stirred debate rival claims classical purity sobriety one excesses marinism other debate went finally decided favour classical Accademia dell'Arcadia view matter prevailed Italian criticism well into 20th century founded Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni Gian Vincenzo Gravina 1690 Arcadia called chief aim imitate simplicity ancient shepherds supposed lived Arcadia golden age poems Arcadia made sonnets madrigals canzonette blank verse distinguished among sonneteers Felice Zappi Paolo Rolli illustrious songs Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni best known members almost exclusively men least woman Maria Antonia Scalera Stellini elected poetical merits Vincenzo da Filicaja lyric talent particularly songs Vienna besieged Turks philosopher theologian astrologer poet Tommaso Campanella interesting albeit isolated figure 17th-century Italian literature. His Poesie published 1622 consist eighty-nine poems various metrical forms some autobiographical stamped seriousness directness bypassing literary fashions day wrote Latin dialectics rhetoric poetics historiography Italian Del senso delle cose magia composed 1604 published 1620 fascinating work influenced Bernardino Telesio teachings imagines world living statue God aspects reality meaning sense animism sensuality foreshadows views Daniello Bartoli Tesauro theological work closely connected philosophical writings includes Atheismus triumphatus thirty-volume Theologia 1613, 24 most famous work bringing together interests La città del sole first drafted 1602 Italian later translated Latin 1613 1631 Genoese sailor Christopher Columbus crew describes ideal state City Sun ruled temporal spiritual matters Prince Priest called Sun Metaphysician three ministers Power war peace Wisdom science art written one book Love procreation education citizens Sun life citizens based communism system property held publicly families inheritance rights marriage sexual relations regulated state everyone function society certain duties required all citizens education perfect training mind body radically opposed bookish academic culture Renaissance Italy objects study should not dead things but nature mathematical physical laws governing physical world links burgeoning modernism Querelle anciens modernes methods scientific aspirations Galileo defended writing 1616. Lyncean Academy first famous scientific academies Italy founded 1603 Rome Federico Cesi dedicated activities study natural mathematical sciences experimental method associated Galileo European dimension academy characteristic founders foresight perspective elections made foreign corresponding members practice continues today members Claudio Achillini Pietro Della Valle Galileo from 1611 Francesco Sforza Pallavicino Giambattista Della Porta from 1610 Filippo Salviati involved large-scale publishing scientific results direct observation including Galileo moon surface work 1610 Assayer 1623 academy defended Galileo trial 1616 played crucial role early diffusion promotion method successor Lynceans Accademia del Cimento founded Florence 1657 never organized Lynceans began meeting disciples Galileo interested progress experimental sciences official status came 1657 cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici sponsored academy foundation motto provando e riprovando members Carlo Roberto Dati Lorenzo Magalotti Vincenzo Viviani set seriously work Unlike Galileo tackling large-scale issues Cimento worked smaller scale elegant Italian prose capable describing things accurately characterizes Saggi di naturali esperienze edited Magalotti published 1667 Galileo occupied conspicuous place history letters devoted student Ariosto transfuse qualities great poet clear frank freedom expression precision ease elegance Paganino Bonafede Tesoro dei rustici gave many precepts agriculture beginning type georgic poetry later fully developed Luigi Alamanni Coltivazione Girolamo Baruffaldi Canapajo Rucellai Le Api Bartolomeo Lorenzi Coltivazione monti Giambattista Spolverini Coltivazione riso.

• 4. Enlightenment Rationality And Political Reform

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  In Amsterdam Tractatus Theologico-Politicus anonymously published treatise author Spinoza rejected Jewish Christian religions lack depth teaching discussed higher levels philosophy suggested understood elitists text one period attributed increasing anti-religious support time held great influence other writers rejected Spinoza views including theologian Lambert van Valthuysen. In 18th century political condition Italy began improve Joseph II Holy Roman Emperor successors influenced philosophers felt general movement ideas large parts Europe sometimes called Enlightenment. Giambattista Vico showed awakening historical consciousness Scienza nuova investigated laws governing progress human race events develop psychological study man tried infer comune natura delle nazioni universal laws history Lodovico Antonio Muratori collected chronicles biographies letters diaries Italian history 500 to 1500 Antiquitates Italicae medii aevi wrote Annali d'Italia minutely narrating facts derived authentic sources associates Scipione Maffei Verona Apostolo Zeno Venice Verona illustrata Maffei left treasure learning excellent historical monograph Zeno added erudition literary history Dissertazioni Vossiane Biblioteca dell'eloquenza italiana Monsignore Giusto Fontanini Girolamo Tiraboschi Count Giammaria Mazzucchelli Brescia devoted themselves literary history new spirit times led investigation historical sources encouraged inquiry mechanism economic social laws Ferdinando Galiani wrote currency Gaetano Filangieri Scienza della legislazione Cesare Beccaria Trattato dei delitti pene made contribution reform penal system promoted abolition torture reforming movement sought throw off conventional artificial return truth Apostolo Zeno Pietro Metastasio endeavoured melodrama reason compatible Metastasio gave fresh expression affections natural turn dialogue some interest plot fallen constant unnatural overrefinement mawkishness frequent anachronisms might considered most important writer opera seria libretti first dramatic reformer 18th century Carlo Goldoni overcame resistance old popular form comedy masks pantalone doctor harlequin Brighella etc created comedy character following Molière example many comedies written Venetian works include Italy's famous best-loved plays Goldoni also wrote pen name title Polisseno Fegeio Pastor Arcade claimed memoirs Arcadians Rome bestowed one best-known comic play Servant Two Masters translated adapted internationally numerous times leading figure literary revival 18th century Giuseppe Parini collection poems published twenty-three years age Ripano Eupilino poet shows faculty taking scenes real life satirical pieces exhibits spirit outspoken opposition own times Improving poems youth showed innovator lyrics rejecting Petrarchism Secentismo Arcadia Odi satirical note already heard comes out more strongly Del giorno assumes major social historical value artist going straight back classical forms opened way school Vittorio Alfieri Ugo Foscolo Vincenzo Monti Giorno sometimes little hard broken protest against Arcadian monotony ideas behind French Revolution 1789 gave special direction Italian literature second half 18th century love liberty desire equality created literature aimed national objects seeking improve condition country freeing double yoke political religious despotism Italians aspiring political redemption believed inseparable intellectual revival thought effected reunion ancient classicism repetition occurred first half 15th century Patriotism classicism two principles inspired literature began Vittorio Alfieri worshipped Greek Roman idea popular liberty arms against tyranny subjects tragedies history nations made ancient characters talk revolutionists time Arcadian school verbosity triviality rejected aim brief concise strong bitter aim sublime opposed lowly pastoral saved literature Arcadian vacuities leading national end armed patriotism classicism appearance tragedies Alfieri perhaps most important literary event occurred Italy during 18th century Vincenzo Monti patriot wrote Pellegrino apostolico Bassvilliana Feroniade Napoleon victories caused write Prometeo Musagonia Fanatismo Superstizione attacked papacy afterwards sang praises Austrians knowing little Greek succeeded translating Iliad remarkable Homeric feeling Bassvilliana level Dante classical poetry seemed revive florid grandeur Ugo Foscolo eager patriot inspired classical models Lettere Jacopo Ortis inspired Goethe Sorrows Young Werther love story mixture patriotism contain violent protest Treaty Campo Formio outburst Foscolo own heart unhappy love-affair passions sudden violent one passion Ortis owed origin perhaps best sincere writings Sepolcri best poem prompted high feeling mastery versification shows wonderful art prose works high place belongs translation Sentimental Journey Laurence Sterne writer deeply affected wrote English readers Essays Petrarch Decamerone Dante texts remarkable when written initiated new type literary criticism men making revolution 1848 brought work France enlightenment advancement meant sacred secular authors pushing women higher level literary knowledgeability France attempting improve education young women therefore seen reflection advancement society led emergence new genre literature 18th-century France books conduct girls unmarried women pieces Marie-Antoinette Lenoir Louise d'Épinay Anne-Thérèse de Lambert shared role shaping young French women lead successful progressive lives form education women 18th century observed oppressive empowering Spain War Spanish Succession 1701, 1714 led French control over Spain influenced cultural identity Enlightenment period held impact Spanish literature 18th century court Madrid during 18th century saw increase influence French Italian literary influences derived increasingly authors English Enlightenment period English authors stated hold influence Spanish Ilustrados include John Locke Edmund Burke Edward Young Thomas Hobbes New takes literature emerged time poets Ignacio Luzán Claramunt Gaspar Melchor Jovellanos contributed greatly neoclassical movement 18th century drama poetic forms literature Only until 20th century Spanish Enlightenment period properly acknowledged scholars past research regarding Spanish Enlightenment time foreign imitation Spanish Enlightenment held impact women Spain more women publishing literature members subscribers publications Semanario Salamanca Numerous women contributing Spanish Enlightenment period poet Margarita Hickey author Frasquita Larrea poet María Gertrudis Hore Russia 18th century experiencing expansions military geographical control key facet Enlightenment period reflected literature time Satire panegyric influenced development Russian literature figures Feofan Prokopovich Kantemir Derzhavin Karambin Sublime era Spanish literature 18th century influenced literary concept sublime linkage Spanish Neoclassical poetry Romantic poetry prevalent 18th century concept literary rhetorical philosophical value Longinus described literary devices sublime creates allowing reader experience similar speaker created style language not used persuade merely transport reader mind speaker.

• 5. Romantic Nationalism And Byronic Hero

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  In Milan Conciliatore established 1818 served organ romantic school staff Silvio Pellico Ludovico di Breme Giovile Scalvini Tommaso Grossi Giovanni Berchet Samuele Biava Alessandro Manzoni all influenced ideas Germany constituted movement called Romanticism Italy course literary reform took another direction Italian writers 19th century including Leopardi Alessandro Manzoni detested grouped category writing therefore home many isolated literary figures unambiguous meaning term Romanticism itself explained writings Pietro Borsieri depicted term Romanticism self-defined writers Contrastingly noted writers time Giuseppe Acerbi how Italian Romantics mimicking trends seen foreign nations hasty way lacking depth foreign writers Authors Ludovico di Breme Giovanni Berchet classified themselves Romantics critiqued others Gina Martegiani wrote essay Il Romanticismo Italiano Non Esiste 1908 authors considering themselves Romantics only created two-dimensional imitations German Romantic authors poetry Romantic era Italy focused greatly motif nature Romantic poets drew inspiration ancient Greek Latin mythology poets period sought create sense unity country writings Political disunity prevalent 19th-century Italy reflected Risorgimento After Neapolitan Revolution 1799 term Risorgimento used context movement national redemption stated Antonio Gramsci one facet holding Italy together political disunity poetry writings time suggested Berchet desire freedom sense national redemption reflected heavily works Italian Romantics including Ugo Foscolo story Last Letters Jacopo Ortis man forced commit suicide due political persecutions country great poet age Giacomo Leopardi admirable prose writer Operette Morali dialogues discourses marked cold bitter smile human destinies freezes reader clearness style simplicity language depth conception perhaps greatest lyrical poet since Dante most perfect writers prose Italian literature widely seen radical challenging thinkers 19th century routinely compared Italian critics older contemporary Alessandro Manzoni expressing diametrically opposite positions strongly lyrical quality poetry made central figure European international literary cultural landscape. Historical events including European Revolution French revolution claimed most significant contributed development 19th-century British Romanticism revolutions birthed new genre authors poets using literature convey distaste authority William Blake artist used primarily philosophical biblical themes poetry Samuel Taylor Coleridge William Wordsworth known Lake Poets literature Lyrical Ballads claimed marked beginning Romantic Movement Known two waves British Romantic authors Coleridge Wordsworth grouped first wave more radical aggressive second wave included George Gordon Byron Percy Bysshe Shelley adamant aggression Byron poetic works advocated anti-violence revolution world equality existed form fictional character born named Byronic hero known rebellious character pervades much work Byron considered reflection character created Greek Roman mythology prevalent works British Romantic poets including Keats Shelley poets rejected notion mythological inspiration including Coleridge preferred take inspiration Bible produce significantly religious-inspired works British 19th-century Romanticism developed literature focused self-organisation living beings growth adaption environments creative spark inspired physical system perform complex functions observed close ties medicine concept experiencing innovation 19th-century Romantic English literature influences 13th-/16th-century Italian art consequence British artists resided Italy Bonaparte invasion dealing paintings London clients medieval High Renaissance Italian periods exposure artworks influenced British literature culture time Britain struggling prove value own visual culture art gave inspiration shaped aesthetic Romantic literature writers author Mary Shelley diversity lack standard seen work infamous Italian artists Michelangelo Raphael allowed Romantic writers celebrate new forms ways expression English essayist William Hazlitt articulated lack restriction ample artistic liberty freedom seen through artworks Raphael inspired poets Romantic era Michelangelo artworks embodied sublime reflected literature Dante Shakespeare constant analogies comparing two.

• 6. Modernism Decadence And Neorealist Resistance

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  Important early-20th century writers include Italo Svevo author La coscienza di Zeno 1923 Luigi Pirandello winner 1934 Nobel Prize Literature explored shifting nature reality prose fiction plays Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore Six Characters Search Author 1921 Federigo Tozzi great novelist critically appreciated recent years considered one forerunners existentialism European novel Grazia Deledda Sardinian writer focused life customs traditions Sardinian people Migiel Marilyn Bio-bibliographic Sourcebook Rinaldina Russell Westport CT Greenwood 1994 111-17 Print In 1926 won Nobel Prize literature becoming Italy's first only woman recipient Amoia Alba Della Fazia Southern Illinois UP 1996 Print Sibilla Aleramo published first novel Una Donna Woman 1906 today widely acknowledged Italy premier feminist novel writing mixes autobiographical fictional elements Pitigrilli pseudonym Dino Segre published most famous novel cocaine 1921 portrayal drug use sex Catholic Church listed forbidden book translated numerous languages reprinted new editions become classic Maria Messina Sicilian writer focused heavily Sicilian culture dominant theme isolation oppression young Sicilian women Lombardo Maria Nina Bio-bibliographic Sourcebook Rinaldina Russell Westport CT Greenwood 1994 259-67 Print achieved modest recognition life including receiving Medaglia D'oro Prize La Mérica Anna Banti best known short story Il Coraggio Donne Courage Women published 1940 autobiographical work Un Grido Lacerante published 1981 won Antonio Feltrinelli prize successful author literary cinematic art critic Elsa Morante began writing early age central themes narcissism uses love metaphor passion obsession lead despair destruction Premio Viareggio award 1948 Alba de Céspedes Cuban-Italian writer Rome Nerenberg Ellen Bio-bibliographic Sourcebook Rinaldina Russell Westport CT Greenwood 1994 104-10 Print anti-Fascist involved Italian Resistance work greatly influenced history culture developed around World War II books bestsellers overlooked recent studies Italian women writers Poetry represented Crepuscolari Futurists foremost member latter group Filippo Tommaso Marinetti Leading Modernist poets later century Salvatore Quasimodo winner 1959 Nobel Prize Literature Giuseppe Ungaretti Umberto Saba fame collection poems Il canzoniere Eugenio Montale winner 1975 Nobel Prize Literature described critics hermeticists Alberto Moravia leading figures Italian Neorealism literature movement developed rapidly between 1940s 1950s foundations laid 1920s flourished fall Fascism Italy type literature welcomed Fascist authorities social criticism partially new realist authors Anti-Fascist views example Alberto Moravia one leading writers movement trouble finding publisher novel bringing fame Gli indifferenti 1929 published driven hiding Carlo Bernari Tre operai Three Workers 1934 unofficially banned personally Mussolini saw communism Ignazio Silone Fontamara 1933 exile Elio Vittorini put prison Conversazione Sicilia 1941 movement profoundly affected translations socially conscious U.S English writers during 1930s 1940s namely Ernest Hemingway William Faulkner John Steinbeck John Dos Passos others translators Vittorini Cesare Pavese later acclaimed novelists movement After war began rapidly developing took label Neorealism Marxism experiences war became sources inspiration postwar authors Moravia wrote novels The Conformist 1951 La Ciociara 1957 Moon Bonfires 1949 Pavese most recognized work Primo Levi documented experiences Auschwitz If This Man 1947 other writers Carlo Levi reflected experience political exile southern Italy Christ Stopped Eboli 1951 Curzio Malaparte author Kaputt 1944 Skin 1949 novels dealing Eastern Front Naples Pier Paolo Pasolini poet film director described life Roman lumpenproletariat Ragazzi 1955 Corrado Alvaro.