Hell: the story on HearLore

Hell

The modern English word hell first appeared in written records around 725 AD. It derives from the Old English forms hel and helle, which described a nether world of the dead during the Anglo-Saxon pagan period. This term shares cognates across all branches of Germanic languages. Old Norse used hel to describe both a location and a goddess-like being. Old Frisian speakers called it helle, while Old Saxon speakers used hellia. Old High German speakers referred to it as hella, and Gothic speakers wrote halja. All these forms trace back to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic feminine noun xaljō or haljō. Scholars define this root as meaning 'concealed place' or 'the underworld'. The Proto-Germanic form itself comes from the o-grade version of the Proto-Indo-European root kel-, kol-. This ancient root means 'to cover', 'conceal', or 'save'. Indo-European cognates include Latin cēlāre, which relates to the English word cellar. Early Irish speakers used ceilid, meaning 'hides'. When Christian missionaries converted the Germanic peoples, they reinterpreted extensions of the Proto-Germanic xaljō. These extensions came to denote the underworld within Christian mythology. Related early Germanic terms include Proto-Germanic xalja-rūnō(n). This is a feminine compound noun that philologist Vladimir Orel suggests means 'witches'. Jordanes attested the Latinized Gothic plural noun haliurunnae. Old English speakers used helle-rúne to mean 'sorceress' or 'necromancer'. Old High German speakers called it helli-rūna, meaning 'magic'. The second element in the Gothic term may derive from the verb rinnan, meaning 'to run' or 'go'. If so, its literal meaning would be 'one who travels to the netherworld'. Another compound form is Proto, Germanic xalja-wītjan. Scholars reconstruct this from Old Norse hel-víti and Old English helle-wíte. Middle High German speakers used helle-wīze as a feminine noun. The compound combines xaljō with wītjan. This second element comes from forms like Old English witt, meaning 'right mind' or 'wits'. It also derives from Gothic un-witi, meaning 'foolishness' or 'understanding'.

When did the modern English word hell first appear in written records?

The modern English word hell first appeared in written records around 725 AD. It derives from Old English forms hel and helle which described a nether world of the dead during the Anglo-Saxon pagan period.

What is the origin of the Proto-Germanic root for the word hell?

Scholars trace the term back to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic feminine noun xaljō or haljō meaning concealed place or the underworld. This form comes from the o-grade version of the Proto-Indo-European root kel- or kol- which means to cover conceal or save.

How does ancient Egyptian belief describe punishment after death?

In ancient Egypt guilty persons were thrown to Ammit the devourer of the dead and condemned to the lake of fire before annihilation. No suggestion existed of eternal torture as complete destruction awaited the damned.

Who ruled the Sumerian underworld known as Kur?

The bleak domain known as Kur was ruled by goddess Ereshkigal with Neti serving as gatekeeper at seven gates requiring passage through them. During the Akkadian Period Nergal became ruler alongside Ereshkigal.

When did Dante Alighieri set his Divine Comedy in the year 1300?

Dante Alighieri set his Divine Comedy in the year 1300 employing Virgil as guide through Inferno before ascending Mount Purgatorio. Hell's geography features nine concentric rings leading deeper into Earth until reaching Satan trapped in frozen Cocytus lake.

Ancient Near Eastern Underworlds

As early as 1500 BCE, Egyptians asserted that the dead would face judgment. Those found guilty would suffer punishment and torture for their crimes. One of the oldest detailed descriptions of hell appears in the Kathāvatthu, an earliest Buddhist writing composed between 250 and 100 BCE. This text argues that hell exists as a state resulting from bad actions. Matricide, patricide, killing a perfected saint, wounding the Buddha with evil intent, and creating schism in the sangha all lead to hell. Such concepts did not require the existence of a God. They do not depend on deities. Within Persian dualism, hell was considered the abode of Angra Manyu, the principle Devil. Mazdaist eschatology held that the dead freely choose paradise or hell based on their life actions. These choices correspond either to the values of God or the Devil. The mythological narrative places hell in the middle of the earth. A bridge spans over it, forcing the dead to pass across. Those who committed evil fall down into the abyss. Souls there torment each other while demons torture them according to their specific sins. Their torment is not eternal because God eventually triumphs over the Devil. He destroys hell and restores cosmic order. In ancient Egypt, the cult of Osiris rose during the Middle Kingdom. This movement offered even humble followers the prospect of eternal life. Moral fitness became the dominant factor determining suitability for the afterlife. At death, a person faced judgment by a tribunal of forty-two divine judges. If they lived in conformance with Maat's precepts, representing truth and right living, they entered heavenly reed fields. Guilty persons were thrown to Ammit, the 'devourer of the dead'. They were condemned to the lake of fire. The taken person suffered terrifying punishment before annihilation. No suggestion existed of eternal torture; complete destruction awaited the damned. Six ancient texts form modern understanding of Egyptian notions: The Book of Two Ways, The Book of Amduat, The Book of Gates, The Book of the Dead, The Book of the Earth, and The Book of Caverns. Ancient Sumerian afterlife was a dark, dreary cavern deep below ground. Inhabitants continued a shadowy version of earthly life. This bleak domain known as Kur was ruled by goddess Ereshkigal. All souls went to the same place regardless of actions during life. Souls ate nothing but dry dust. Family members poured libations into graves through clay pipes so the dead could drink. Funerary evidence shows some believed Inanna, Ereshkigal's sister, awarded special favors. During the Third Dynasty of Ur, burial quality determined treatment in the afterlife. Sumptuous burials meant good treatment while poor burials led to poor fates. The entrance to Kur lay in the Zagros mountains far east. Seven gates required passage through them. Neti served as gatekeeper. Galla demons dragged unfortunate mortals back to Kur. Some texts describe seven galla dragging god Dumuzid into the underworld. Later Mesopotamians called this underworld Irkalla. During the Akkadian Period, Nergal became ruler alongside Ereshkigal.

Classical Greek And Roman Eschatology

In classic Greek mythology, Tartarus sits below heaven, Earth, and Pontus. It functions as either a deep gloomy pit or an abyss used as a dungeon of torment. This realm resides within Hades, the entire underworld, with Tartarus serving as its hellish component. Plato wrote in his dialogue Gorgias around 400 BC that souls paid for crossing the river of the dead before judgment. Those receiving punishment were sent to Tartarus. As a place of punishment, it qualifies as a hell. Classic Hades resembles Old Testament Sheol more closely than modern concepts of eternal fire. Romans later adopted these views from their Greek predecessors. In the New Testament, references to hell remain sparse compared to other religious texts. The Septuagint understanding of Hades mirrors Hebrew Sheol, a place where the dead await resurrection. Gehenna presents a different picture entirely. It contains unquenchable fire and worms that never die. Both body and soul can be destroyed there. Apocrypha like the Ethiopic Book of Enoch show ideas beginning to conflate. Apostate Jews suffer in Gehenna according to this text. For Rabbis, it represented temporal punishment for Jews but eternal punishment for Gentiles. Shortly after composing the New Testament, belief arose that the Devil also becomes a prisoner to hell. Medieval Christian visions introduced cold elements alongside traditional fire imagery. The Apocalypse of Paul originated in the early third century. Venerable Bede wrote 'Vision of Dryhthelm' during the seventh century. Twelfth-century works included 'St Patrick's Purgatory', 'Visio Tnugdali', and 'Vision of the Monk of Eynsham'. An early thirteenth-century text called 'Vision of Thurkill' added further details. Dante Alighieri set his Divine Comedy in the year 1300. He employed Virgil as guide through Inferno before ascending Mount Purgatorio. Virgil remained confined to Limbo just at hell's edge since he was a virtuous pagan. Hell's geography features nine concentric rings leading deeper into Earth. Punishments intensify with each ring until reaching Satan trapped in frozen Cocytus lake. A small tunnel leads past Satan out to the world's other side. John Milton published Paradise Lost in 1667. It opens with fallen angels waking in hell after defeat in heaven's war. Satan serves as their leader throughout the poem. Milton portrays hell as demons' abode and passive prison plotting revenge against heaven. Arthur Rimbaud titled one major work A Season in Hell, released in 1873. His poetry portrayed personal suffering alongside broader themes.

Abrahamic Doctrinal Developments

Judaism lacks specific doctrine about the afterlife yet maintains mystical traditions describing Gehinnom. Originally a grave, it later became sort of purgatory where judgment occurs based on life deeds. Kabbalah explains it as waiting room for all souls regardless of wickedness. Rabbinic thought overwhelmingly holds people stay no longer than twelve months there. Occasional exceptions exist but remain rare. Some view it spiritual forge purifying souls before eventual ascent to Olam Habah. This concept appears in Kabbalah where soul breaks like candle flame lighting another. Part ascending pure while unfinished piece reborn. Jewish teachings describe hell not entirely physical but comparable to intense shame feeling. People feel ashamed of misdeeds constituting suffering making up bad deeds. When deviating from God's will, one enters Gehinnom. Gates of teshuva always open allowing alignment with divine will anytime. Being out of alignment itself constitutes punishment according to Torah. Many scholars describe seven compartments or habitation of hell similar to heaven divisions. Names vary frequently including Sheol, Abaddon, Be'er Shachat, Tit ha-Yaven, Sha'are Mavet, Tzalmavet, and Gehinnom. Additional terms include Azazel, Dudael, Tehom, Tophet, Tzoah Rotachat, Mashchit, Dumah, Neshiyyah, Bor Shaon, Eretz Tachtit, Masak Mavdil, Haguel, Ikisat. Maimonides declared hells rabbinic literature were pedagogically motivated inventions encouraging respect for Torah commandments. Souls wicked would actually get annihilated instead sent there. Christian doctrine derives from New Testament passages using Greek words Tartarus or Hades or Hebrew word Gehinnom. English word hell does not appear in Greek New Testament. Septuagint authors used Greek term Hades for Hebrew Sheol often with Jewish rather than Greek concepts mind. Augustine believed souls rest peacefully or afflicted after death until resurrection. Roman Catholic Church Council Trent taught damnation eternal loss of blessedness and eternal damnation incurred. Catholic definition states hell definitive self-exclusion communion God blessed resulting dying mortal sin without repenting accepting merciful love becoming eternally separated by free choice immediately after death. Many Protestant churches teach salvation comes accepting Jesus Christ savior while Greek Orthodox and Catholic Churches teach judgment hinges faith works combined. Liberal Christians believe universal reconciliation contradicting traditional doctrines held evangelicals within denominations. Seventh-day Adventist Church supports annihilationism denying everlasting conscious torment believing wicked permanently destroyed lake fire called second death Revelation 20:14. Jehovah's Witnesses hold soul ceases exist person dies therefore hell state non-existence. Gehenna differs Sheol Hades holding no hope resurrection. Bible Students Christadelphians also believe annihilationism. Emanuel Swedenborg Second Coming revelation states hell exists evil people want it. They introduced evil human race not God. Every soul joins like-minded group feeling most comfortable Hell believed happiness souls delight evilness. Members Latter-day Saints teach hell state between death resurrection spirits suffering own sins Doctrine Covenants 19:15, 17. Only Sons perdition committing Eternal sin cast Outer darkness requiring much knowledge most persons cannot do this. Islam describes Jahannam counterpart heaven divided seven layers co-existing temporal world filled blazing fire boiling water variety torments condemned hereafter. Quran declares fire prepared mankind jinn. After Day Judgment occupied disbelievers disobeying laws rejecting messengers. Enemies Islam sent hell immediately deaths. Muslim modernists downplay vivid descriptions Classical period reaffirming afterlife must denied asserting exact nature remains unknown. Most scholars consider jahannam eternal though disputed some scholars. Fire representing bad deeds seen Punishment Grave leading purification soul spiritual pain. Narrow bridge As-Sirāt spans over hell. One passing reach paradise destined fall into new abode. Iblis temporary ruler hell thought residing bottom commanding hosts infernal demons. Executioners punishment nineteen zabaniyya created fires hell. Muhammad said fire seventy times hotter ordinary fire much more painful. Seven gates inspired exegetes develop system seven stages analogue seven doors paradise. Highest level traditionally purgatory reserved Muslims. Polytheism shirk regarded particularly grievous sin entering Paradise forbidden polytheist place hell. Second lowest level only bottomless pit hypocrites claiming aloud believe God messenger hearts did not.

Eastern Asian Afterlife Realms

Buddhism teaches five or six realms rebirth further subdivided degrees agony pleasure. Hell realms Naraka lowest realm rebirth worst Avīci Sanskrit Pali without waves. Buddha disciple Devadatta tried kill Buddha three occasions create schism monastic order said reborn Avici hell. Like all realms rebirth not permanent suffering persist eons before rebirth again. Lotus Sutra teaches eventually even Devadatta become Pratyekabuddha himself emphasizing temporary nature hell realms. Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha made great vow young girl reach Nirvana beings liberated hell realms unwholesome rebirths. Popular literature shows Ksitigarbha travels hell realms teach relieve beings suffering. Early Vedic religion lacks concept hell Rigveda mentions three realms bhūr svar antarikśa middle area air atmosphere. Later Hindu literature law books Puranas mention realm similar hell called Naraka. Yama first born human twin sister Yamī becomes ruler men judge departure. Law-books Smritis Dharmashashtras describe Naraka punishment misdeeds lower spiritual plane naraka-loka spirit judged partial fruits karma affect next life. Mahabharata mentions Pandavas Kauravas both going heaven Yudhishthira sees Duryodhana enjoying realm Indra tells him adequately performed Kshatriya duties Then shows Yudhishthira hell appears brothers later revealed test showing brothers Kauravas heaven live happily divine abode devas Garuda Purana gives detailed account features lists amount punishment crimes modern-day penal code. People committing misdeeds go through punishments accordance committed misdeeds god Yama presides hell Chitragupta record keeper court reads out misdeeds ordered appropriate punishments dipping boiling oil burning fire torture weapons various hells. Individuals finishing quota punishments reborn balance karma exception Hindu philosopher Madhva time not regarded eternal damnation within Hinduism. Jain cosmology names Naraka realm existence great suffering differs Abrahamic religions souls sent result divine judgment punishment length stay usually very long measured billions years. Soul born direct result previous karma actions body speech mind resides finite length until karma achieved full result. After karma used up may reborn higher worlds earlier karma ripened. Hells situated seven grounds lower part universe hellish beings type souls residing various hells born sudden manifestation. Hellish beings possess vaikriya body protean transforming taking various forms fixed life span ranging ten thousand billions years respective hells reside Tattvarthasutra scripture following causes birth killing causing pain intense passion excessive attachment things worldly pleasure constantly indulging cruel violent acts vowless unrestrained liferefer Mahavrata vows restraints Meivazhi purpose all religions guide people heaven those approaching God blessed believed condemned hell Sikh thought heaven hell spiritual topography man existing otherwise refer good evil stages life lived earthly existence Guru Arjan explains entangled emotional attachment doubt living hell Earth life hellish Ancient Taoism concept hell morality seen man-made distinction no immaterial soul home country China popular belief endows Taoist hell many deities spirits punishing sin horrible ways Buddhist hells became so much part Daoist sects funeral services priests hang scrolls depicting similar scenes Typically Daoist hells said ten number sometimes situated under high mountain Sichuan Each ruled king serving judge surrounded ministers attendants carrying decisions Punishment inflicted torture instruments non-physical metaphysical punishments However usually final soul journey refining going several hells punishments reincarnated another body human world Chinese traditional syncretic religion Diyu realm dead loosely based Buddhist Naraka combined traditional Chinese afterlife beliefs variety popular expansions reinterpretations Ruled Yanluo Wang King hell maze underground levels chambers souls taken atone earthly sins Incorporating ideas Taoism Buddhism traditional Chinese folk religion kind purgatory place serves punish renew spirits ready next incarnation Many deities associated names purposes subject conflicting information Exact number levels associated deities differs according Buddhist Taoist perception Some speak three four Courts others as many ten judges known 10 Kings Yama Court deals different aspect atonement murder punished one Court adultery another According some legends eighteen levels hell Punishment varies belief most legends speak highly imaginative chambers wrong-doers sawn half beheaded thrown pits filth forced climb trees adorned sharp blades Most legends agree once soul ghost atoned deeds repented given Drink Forgetfulness Meng Po sent back world reborn possibly animal poor sick person further punishment.