Yuan dynasty
In 1271, Kublai Khan issued an edict titled Proclamation of the Dynastic Name that officially established the Great Yuan dynasty. This document derived its name from a clause in the Commentaries on the I Ching regarding the first hexagram. The proclamation claimed succession from ancient Chinese rulers like the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors all the way to the Tang dynasty. Kublai had previously ruled as Khagan since 1260 but now adopted the traditional Han-style title of Emperor. His realm controlled most of modern-day China including Mongolia by this point. The conquest was not complete until 1279 when Southern Song forces were defeated at the Battle of Yamen. This battle saw a predominantly Han navy commanded by Zhang Hongfan defeat Song loyalists who had enthroned Emperor Bing of Song. The last Song emperor drowned during this engagement bringing three hundred years of division between north and south to an end.
Kublai originally named his eldest son Zhenjin as crown prince but he died before Kublai in 1285. Zhenjin's third son Temür Khan then succeeded the throne ruling from 1294 to 1307 with support from his mother Kökejin and minister Bayan. Temür maintained much work begun by his grandfather while making peace with western Mongol khanates. Corruption began during his reign though financial difficulties worsened under Külüg Khan who came to power after Temür died. Külüg introduced New Deals focused on monetary reforms that left China in severe debt by 1311. Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan became fourth emperor and reintroduced imperial examinations starting in 1313 testing knowledge on historical works. He codified law and published Chinese books before dying in 1322. His son Gegeen ruled only two years until assassinated in 1323 by five princes from a rival faction. Yesün Temür took the throne but also succumbed to regicide shortly after. The War of Two Capitals erupted when Tugh Temür won civil war against Ragibagh in 1328. Kusala died four days after banquet supposedly poisoned by El Temür who then remounted the throne as puppet ruler.
Mathematician Zhu Shijie solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using rectangular array coefficients equivalent to modern matrices. His method appeared in Jade Mirror of Four Unknowns written in 1303 containing diagram of Pascal triangle. Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to calendar construction deriving cubic interpolation formula for astronomical calculations. His Shoushi Li calendar disseminated in 1281 provided accuracy of 365.2425 days only twenty-six seconds off Gregorian measurement. Physician Wei Yilin invented suspension method reducing dislocated joints using anesthetics between 1277 and 1347. Hu Sihui described importance of healthy diet in medical treatise published 1330. Wang Zhen used earthenware movable type printing technology invented during twelfth century for Nong Shu published 1313. Annual sales of printed calendars reached over three million copies by 1328 within Yuan dynasty. Paper money called jiaochao made from mulberry tree bark switched from woodblocks to bronze plates in 1275. The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294 but public distrust doomed experiment.
Blue-and-white painted pottery developed in Jingdezhen beginning early decades fourteenth century matured before dynasty ended. Exports expanded considerably especially toward Islamic world. Marco Polo documented life in Cambaluc capital Great Khan appearing about year 1299 as Travels of Marco Polo. Some doubted accuracy due lack mentioning Great Wall chopsticks tea houses practice foot binding women capital. Recent studies show account largely accurate unique. Western musical instruments enriched Chinese performing arts. Buddhism particularly Tibetan variants flourished influencing China significantly. Muslims introduced Middle Eastern cartography astronomy medicine clothing cuisine East Asia. Eastern crops carrots turnips new lemons eggplants melons high-quality granulated sugar cotton either introduced successfully popularized period. Thin glass cloisonné became popular in China while purified saltpetre printing techniques porcelain playing cards medical literature exported Europe Western Asia. Jade swan artifacts and blue-and-white covered jars with fretwork floral design excavated Baoding demonstrate artistic achievements. Lacquer plates decorated parrots peonies symbolizing fidelity love feminine beauty created during Yuan period.
Kublai favored Buddhism especially Tibetan Sakya sect making it de facto state religion. Bureau Buddhist Tibetan Affairs established Khanbaliq supervise monks throughout empire. Fourteen leaders Sakya sect held Imperial Preceptor post before dynasty end granting special power. Mongol patronage resulted monuments Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations from Tibetan originals began large scale after 1300. Many upper class nobles Jalayir Oronar emperors patronized Confucian scholars institutions. Considerable number Confucian Chinese historical works translated into Mongolian language. Muslims imported Central Asian administrators serving China Hans Khitans sent Bukhara curtail local peoples power. Genghis Khan following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering forcing Mongol methods eating animals. Jews also affected forbidden eat Kosher. Muslims had slaughter sheep secret. Circumcision forbidden. Regulation issued effect all Muslims say if someone else slaughters animal do not eat. Poor people upset from now Musuluman Huihui Zhuhu no matter who kills animal will eat cease slaughtering sheep themselves cease rite circumcision. Ispah Rebellion crushed Muslims massacred loyalist commander Chen Youding.
Central Secretariat managed civil affairs Privy Council handled military affairs Censorate conducted internal surveillance inspection. Six Ministries introduced since Sui Tang dynasties created Sinicized image administration actual functions reflected Mongolian priorities policies. Authority Ministry Justice did not extend legal cases involving Mongols Semu separate courts justice. Cases members more than one ethnic group decided mixed board consisting Chinese Mongols. Department State Affairs mainly dealt finance established reign Külüg Emperor Wuzong usually abandoned shortly afterwards. Eleven regular provinces subordinated Central Secretariat. Below level provinces largest political division circuit followed lù f zhōu three kinds prefecture-like divisions lowest county. Lù higher f higher zhou however relationship complicated. All lù f zhou could administer counties some directly administered province existed inside lù. Government structure provincial level later inherited modified Ming Qing dynasties. Paper money called jiaochao made mulberry tree bark printed woodblocks switched bronze plates 1275. Granaries ordered built empire provide against possible famines. Beijing rebuilt palace grounds artificial lakes hills mountains parks. Grand Canal completely renovated became terminus northern China encouraging overland maritime commerce Asia facilitating direct Chinese contacts Europe.
From late 1340s countryside people suffered frequent natural disasters droughts floods resulting famines government lack effective policy led loss popular support. Red Turban Rebellion led Song loyalists started 1351 grew nationwide uprising establishing renewed Song dynasty Kaifeng capital 1351. Toghtogha led large army crush rebels Toghon Temür dismissed him fear betrayal resulting rapid weakening central government. He fled north Shangdu from Khanbaliq present-day Beijing 1368 approach forces Ming dynasty founded Zhu Yuanzhang south. Zhu former Duke commander army Red Turban Song assumed power Emperor death Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er died Yingchang located present-day Inner Mongolia two years later 1370. Yingchang seized Ming shortly after his death. Prince Liang Basalawarmi established separate pocket resistance Yunnan Guizhou decisively defeated Ming 1381. Remaining Yuan forces Manchuria under Naghachu surrendered Ming 1387. Yuan remnants retreated Mongolia fall Yingchang Ming 1370 name Great Yuan formally carried known Northern Yuan dynasty. Some Yuan royal family members still live Henan today.
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Common questions
When did Kublai Khan officially establish the Great Yuan dynasty?
Kublai Khan issued an edict titled Proclamation of the Dynastic Name that officially established the Great Yuan dynasty in 1271. The conquest was not complete until 1279 when Southern Song forces were defeated at the Battle of Yamen.
Who succeeded Kublai Khan as ruler after his death in 1285?
Zhenjin died before Kublai in 1285 and Zhenjin's third son Temür Khan then succeeded the throne ruling from 1294 to 1307 with support from his mother Kökejin and minister Bayan. Tugh Temür won civil war against Ragibagh in 1328 but Kusala died four days after banquet supposedly poisoned by El Temür who then remounted the throne as puppet ruler.
How many classes existed within the Yuan dynasty social hierarchy?
The population was divided into four classes based on loyalty and surrender date rather than pure ethnicity. Mongols held top position called Gao-chen meaning citizens of ruling empire while Nan or Southerners comprised all subjects of former Southern Song dynasty including ethnic Han minority groups in southern China and people of Dali Kingdom sat at bottom of privilege ladder sometimes called Manzi during Yuan dynasty.
What mathematical achievements did Zhu Shijie make during the Yuan period?
Mathematician Zhu Shijie solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using rectangular array coefficients equivalent to modern matrices. His method appeared in Jade Mirror of Four Unknowns written in 1303 containing diagram of Pascal triangle.
When did the Red Turban Rebellion begin and what caused it?
Red Turban Rebellion led Song loyalists started 1351 grew nationwide uprising establishing renewed Song dynasty Kaifeng capital 1351. From late 1340s countryside people suffered frequent natural disasters droughts floods resulting famines government lack effective policy led loss popular support.