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Philippines | HearLore
Philippines
The Philippines consists of 7,641 islands, a number so vast that it defies the imagination of most outsiders, yet it forms the very foundation of a nation with over 112 million people. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, this archipelago stretches from the South China Sea to the Philippine Sea, creating a natural bridge between Asia and the Americas. The landmass is divided into three main geographical divisions: Luzon in the north, the Visayas in the center, and Mindanao in the south. These islands are not merely scattered rocks in the ocean but are home to diverse ethnicities and rich cultures that have evolved over millennia. The earliest inhabitants, the Negritos, arrived tens of thousands of years ago, followed by waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them new technologies and social structures. The country's strategic location has made it a crossroads of trade and culture, influencing its history from the early days of the Tang and Song dynasties to the modern era of global connectivity. Despite its natural beauty and resources, the Philippines faces significant challenges, including vulnerability to natural disasters due to its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire and the equator. These factors have shaped the resilience and identity of the Filipino people, who have adapted to a landscape marked by frequent earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic activity.
The Dawn of Civilization and Trade
The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, dated to 900 AD, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script. This artifact provides a glimpse into the sophisticated societies that existed long before European contact. By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, becoming the focus of societal changes. Polities such as Maynila, Tondo, Namayan, and Cebu were part of a complex network of trade and diplomacy that extended across Asia. Trade with China began during the late Tang dynasty and expanded during the Song dynasty, bringing Southern Chinese merchants and migrants who gradually settled and intermixed in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits, including linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread during the 14th century via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire. By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there, influencing the region's religious and political landscape. The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups called barangays. When these barangays banded together to form larger settlements or alliances, their more-esteemed members were recognized as paramount datus, rajahs, or sultans. Population density was thought to be low during the 14th to 16th centuries due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, which made the region prone to natural disasters.
Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan, marking the beginning of a long and complex history of foreign intervention. Spanish and American colonial rule began in 1565 when Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain, initiating a period of unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile. Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew, while many Latin Americans were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists. Spanish Manila became the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571, serving as the western hub of trans-Pacific trade by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite. The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer, bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration. Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity, which was initially syncretist. Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence. The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown averaging 250,000 pesos, usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas. British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, but Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista, and the Spanish, Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years.
Revolution and the American Era
Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change. Social identity evolved, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines. Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds. This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines. Rizal was executed on the 30th of December 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain. Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892. The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution. The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanish, American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on the 12th of June 1898. In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish, American War. Spain ruled the Philippines for 333 years. The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on the 21st of January 1899. Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic, escalated into the Philippine, American War. The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease. Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died. After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act. American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic, securing the Sultanate of Sulu, establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.
War, Independence, and the Marcos Dictatorship
Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft Commission; the 1934 Tydings, McDuffie Act granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio Osmeña vice president. Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character. Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language, women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform was considered. The introduction of women's suffrage during the Commonwealth period (1935, 1946) signifies a progressive step towards gender equality in the Philippines. This gave women the right to vote and participate in the country's political processes. The Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941 during World War II, and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel. Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity. Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre. The Philippine resistance and Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war. On the 11th of October 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations. On the 4th of July 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila. Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency, but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward. Under Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses. Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12, the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration, and pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo. In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969. Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on the 21st of September 1972 using the specter of communism and began to rule by decree; the period was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations. Monopolies controlled by Marcos's cronies were established in key industries, including logging and broadcasting; a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros. With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds. Marcos's heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985. On the 21st of August 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos's chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986 which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent. The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution, which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii. Aquino's widow, Corazon, was installed as president and a new constitution was promulgated. The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts. A communist insurgency and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted; the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991.
Modern Challenges and Global Connections
Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation. Ramos's economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. His successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing but faced corruption allegations which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on the 20th of January 2001. Arroyo's nine-year administration was marked by economic growth, but was tainted by corruption and political scandals, including electoral fraud allegations during the 2004 presidential election. Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which advocated good governance and transparency. Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law. Growing public frustration with post-EDSA governance led to the 2016 election of populist Rodrigo Duterte, whose presidency saw the decline of liberalism in the country albeit largely retaining liberal economic policies. Among Duterte's priorities was aggressively increasing infrastructure spending to spur economic growth; the enactment of the Bangsamoro Organic Law; an intensified crackdown on crime and communist insurgencies; and an anti-drug campaign that reduced drug proliferation but that has also led to extrajudicial killings. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines, necessitating nationwide lockdowns that caused a brief but severe economic recession. Under a promise of continuing Duterte's policies, Marcos's son, Bongbong Marcos, ran with Duterte's daughter, Sara, and won the 2022 election. Marcos's renewal of a pro-US foreign policy, however, has been viewed as a reversal of Duterte's cordiality with China, and territorial disputes in the South China Sea have since escalated. The Marcos administration also arrested his predecessor Duterte, who was sent to the International Criminal Court in The Netherlands for trial of crimes against humanity, which led to the collapse of the Marcos-Duterte alliance. Later on, a series of corruption, mismanagement and irregularities in government-funded flood management projects occurred under his administration, resulting in numerous protests nationwide. The Philippines is an emerging market and a developing and newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity. The country is also part of multiple international organizations and forums, mainly in ASEAN. Despite its fast economic growth, it continues to struggle with inequality, widespread corruption, and vulnerability to natural disasters due to its location within the Pacific Ring of Fire, and to the equator, making it prone to earthquakes, monsoon rains, and typhoons, to which the Philippines has built a resilience.
The Heart of the Archipelago
The Philippines is a megadiverse country, with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent). With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic), Philippine rain forests have an array of flora: about 3,500 species of trees, 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid species have been identified. The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species), and over 20,000 insect species. As an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion, Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species. The country has over 3,200 fish species, 121 endemic. Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds. Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane (or mossy forest), mangroves, and ultrabasic forest. According to official estimates, the Philippines had of forest cover in 2023. Logging had been systemized during the American colonial period and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to unregulated logging concessions. Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999. Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success. The Philippines is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation; it has more than 200 protected areas, which was expanded to . Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary. The country's coastline measures , the world's fifth-longest, and the country's exclusive economic zone covers . Its highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of above sea level. The Philippines' longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about . Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila, is connected to Laguna de Bay (the country's largest lake) by the Pasig River. On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions. About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon. The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions. The country has valuable mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity. It is thought to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits, and the world's largest deposits of palladium. The country's gold production in 2015 is 21 metric tonnes. Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc. However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.
The People and Their Heritage
In July 2024, the Philippines had a population of 112,729,484. More than 60 percent of the country's population live in the coastal zone. In 2020, 54 percent lived in urban areas. Manila, its capital, and Quezon City, the country's most populous city, are in Metro Manila. About 13.48 million people, percent of the Philippines' population, live in Metro Manila, the country's most populous metropolitan area and the world's fifth most populous. Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold, from 19 million to 92 million. The country's median age is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old. The Philippines' average annual population growth rate is decreasing, although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been contentious. The country reduced its poverty rate from 49.2 percent in 1985, to 18.1 percent in 2021. The Philippines' income inequality began to decline in 2012. The Philippines has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago's division by water and topography. In the 2020 census, the Philippines' largest ethnic groups were Tagalog (26.0 percent), Visayans [excluding the Cebuano, Hiligaynon, and Waray] (14.3 percent), Ilocano and Cebuano (both eight percent), Hiligaynon (7.9 percent), Bikol (6.5 percent), and Waray (3.8 percent). The country's indigenous peoples consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups, with a combined population of 15.56 million, in 2020. They include the Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, and the indigenous peoples of Palawan. Negritos are thought to be among the islands' earliest inhabitants. These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group, a remnant of the first human migration from Africa to Australia who were probably displaced by later waves of migration. Some Philippine Negritos have a Denisovan admixture in their genome. Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as Austronesians speaking Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Austronesian population's origin is uncertain, but relatives of Taiwanese aborigines probably brought their language and mixed with the region's existing population. The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic and Mlabri-speaking Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion of Papuan ancestry from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the Blaan people and the Sangir language, while ancient immigration added some Indian ancestry to the precolonial Indianized kingdoms of the islands. Immigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially from the Spanish Americas. A 2016 National Geographic project concluded that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53 percent Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36 percent Eastern Asia, 5 percent Southern Europe, 3 percent Southern Asia, and 2 percent Native American (from Latin America). Descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Mestizos or , which during the Spanish colonial times, were mostly composed of Chinese mestizos (), Spanish mestizos () and the mix thereof (). The modern Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society. Primarily the descendants of immigrants from Fujian, the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the American colonial era (early 1900s) purportedly numbered about 1.35 million; while an estimated 22.8 million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century Chinese migrants. During the Hispanic era (late 1700s), the tribute-census showed that mixed Spanish Filipinos made up a moderate ratio (around 5 percent) of all citizens. Meanwhile, a smaller proportion (2.33 percent) of the population were Mexican Filipinos. Almost 300,000 American citizens live in the country , this increased to 750,000 by year 2025,US-PH alliance 'stronger than ever', envoy By Raymund Antonio (Manila Bulletin)
The Cultural Tapestry of the Islands
The Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country's fragmented geography. Spanish and American cultures profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization. The cultures of Lumads of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions. Indigenous groups such as the Igorots have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by resisting the Spanish. A national identity emerged during the 19th century, however, with shared national symbols and cultural and historical touchstones. Hispanic legacies includes the dominance of Catholicism, a creole language, numerous loanwords, the endangered Philippine Spanish, arts, architecture, literature, drama, food, music, dance, fashion and the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames, which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of Spanish naming customs; the names of many locations also have Spanish origins. American influence on modern Filipino culture is evident in the use of English, and Filipino consumption of fast food and American films and music. Public holidays in the Philippines are classified as regular or special. Festivals are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a patron saint). Better-known festivals include Ati-Atihan, Dinagyang, Moriones, Sinulog, and Flores de Mayo, a month-long devotion to the Virgin Mary held in May. The country's Christmas season begins as early as September 1, and Holy Week is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population. Values are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce. They center around social harmony through , motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group. Reciprocity through (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid. The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of (shame) and loss of (self-esteem). The family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships and care for elderly parents are ingrained in Philippine society. Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as and the honorifics and and (older brother) or (older sister). Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, hospitality, religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly women), and integrity. Philippine art combines indigenous folk art, east-Asian and Classical traditions. During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism mainly through paintings and sculptures. The first recorded sculptor in the Philippines is Juan de los Santos (1590 , 1660) known for making retablos. In 1821, Damian Domingo, the father of Filipino paintings, opened the Academia de Dibujo art school in Binondo. Other artists during Spanish colonial rule included painters such as Josef Luciano Dans, Jose Honorato Lozano, Mariano Asuncion and sculptors such as Isabelo Tampinco and Crispulo Hocson. Artist whose works drew attention to the Philippines are Juan Luna and Félix Resurrección Hidalgo. Fernando Amorsolo dominated Philippine paintings during the American colonial period, popular for his pastoral scenes of Philippine countryside. Victorio Edades known as the father of Modern Philippine Art, popularized Modernism in the Philippines in 1920s and 1930s. Traditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous and the , which developed under Spanish rule. Some regions, such as Batanes, differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons. Spanish architecture left an imprint in town designs around a central square or , but many of its buildings were damaged or destroyed during World War II. Several Philippine churches adapted baroque architecture to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of Earthquake Baroque; four baroque churches have been listed as a collective UNESCO World Heritage Site. Spanish colonial fortifications () in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stonemasons. Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings. American rule introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. During the American period, construction of Gabaldon school buildings began, and some city planning using architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done in portions of Manila and Baguio. Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of Greek or Neoclassical architecture. Buildings from the Spanish and American periods can be seen in Iloilo, especially in Calle Real. There are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence. Although native dances had become less popular, folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s. The Cariñosa, a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country's national dance. Popular indigenous dances include the Tinikling and Singkil, which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles. Present-day dances vary from delicate ballet to street-oriented breakdancing. Rondalya music, with traditional mandolin-type instruments, was popular during the Spanish era. Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily bandurria-based bands with 14-string guitars. Kundiman developed during the 1920s and 1930s. The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular music. Rock music was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or Pinoy rock), a term encompassing pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. Martial law in the 1970s produced Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations. The decade also saw the birth of the Manila sound and Original Pilipino Music (OPM). Filipino hip-hop, which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990. Karaoke is also popular. From 2010 to 2020, Pinoy pop (P-pop) was influenced by K-pop and J-pop. Locally produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced plays (with music) and s, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country, and were written in a number of local languages. American influence introduced vaudeville and ballet. Realistic theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues. Philippine literature consists of works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They include , an epic about an eponymous magical bird, and by Tagalog author Francisco Balagtas. José Rizal wrote the novels and , both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule. Folk literature was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although Filipino elites who later learned Spanish wrote nationalistic literature. The American arrival began Filipino literary use of English and influenced the development of the Philippine comics industry that flourished from the 1920s through the 1970s. In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was influenced by political activism; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country's oral traditions. Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through oral tradition; popular figures are Maria Makiling, Lam-ang, and the Sarimanok. The country has a number of folk epics. Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the Maranao-language Darangen is an example. Philippine media primarily uses Filipino and English, although broadcasting has shifted to Filipino. Television shows, commercials, and films are regulated by the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board. Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet, and social media. The country's flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the People's Television Network (PTV). ABS-CBN and GMA, both free-to-air, were the dominant TV networks; before the May 2020 Philippine government denial of ABS-CBN's franchise renewal, it was the country's largest network. Philippine television dramas, known as s and mainly produced by ABS-CBN and GMA, are also seen in several other countries. Local film-making began in 1919 with the release of the first Filipino-produced feature film: (A Girl from the Country), directed by Jose Nepomuceno. Production companies remained small during the silent film era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962, 1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s. Critically acclaimed Philippine films include (Miracle) and (Gold, Silver, Death), both released in 1982. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country's film industry has struggled to compete with larger-budget foreign films (particularly Hollywood films). Art films have thrived, however, and several indie films have been successful domestically and abroad. The Philippines has a large number of radio stations and newspapers. English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students. Less-expensive Tagalog tabloids, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila); however, overall newspaper readership is declining in favor of online news. The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility, are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star. Although freedom of the press is protected by the constitution, the country was listed as the seventh-most-dangerous country for journalists in 2022 by the Committee to Protect Journalists due to 13 unsolved murders of journalists. The Philippine population are the world's top Internet users. In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones. From its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate. Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors, centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations. Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starch but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao. Adobo is the unofficial national dish. Other popular dishes include lechón, kare-kare, sinigang, pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo. Traditional desserts are (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and other sweet treats that reflect the country's rich culinary heritage.