Indian philosophy
In the 4th century BCE, a minister named Chanakya wrote the Arthaśāstra, a text that used the word ānvīkśikī to mean critical inquiry. This term distinguished itself from darśana, which simply meant seeing or looking at truth. Classical Indian philosophers adopted these words to describe their methods of investigation. A traditional classification system divides schools into two groups: āstika and nāstika. The division depends on whether a school accepts the Vedas as valid knowledge. It also hinges on beliefs about Brahman, Atman, and the afterlife. Some exceptions exist within this framework. The Mimamsa school rejects belief in an afterlife while Samkhya denies the premise of Brahman. Six major orthodox schools emerged alongside five heterodox ones. These included Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmānsā, and Vedanta for the orthodox group. The heterodox group contained Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka traditions. Vidyaranya later expanded this list to sixteen schools by including Shaiva and Raseśvara traditions. Most formal recognition occurred between 500 BCE and the late centuries of the Common Era. Only some schools like Jainism and Buddhism survived the passage of time.
The Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000, 500 BCE) preserved ideas that became foundational for Hindu philosophy. Sānkhya regarded the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruśa and prakriti. Puruśa represents perceiving consciousness while prakriti covers perceived reality including mind and matter. This duality forms the basis of soteriology where purush is disentangled from impurities. Yoga accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice similar to Sānkhya. Nyāya focused on logic and epistemology accepting four kinds of Pramā: perception, inference, comparison, and word or testimony. Vaiśeśika defended a theory of atoms and substances but accepted only two pramanas: perception and inference. Pūrva-Mīmānsā concentrated on exegesis of the Vedas and interpretation of ritual. Vedānta interpreted the philosophy of the Upanishads relating to Atman and Brahman. These six systems were sometimes coupled into three groups: Nyāya-Vaiśeśika, Sānkhya-Yoga, and Mīmānsā-Vedānta. Sub-schools developed within each tradition such as Advaita non-dualism and Dvaita dualism in Vedanta. Vidyāranya included further systems like Paśupata Shaivism and Raseśvara alchemy in his Sarva-darśana-sańgraha around 1374, 1380.
Parshvanatha led the Śramaņa order in the 9th century BCE according to historical records. This movement did not accept the Brahmanical religion of the Vedas. It became prominent during the Mauryan period from 322 to 184 BCE. Jainism and Buddhism emerged as especially influential traditions that shaped later Indian thought. The Śramaņa family included Charvaka materialism and Ajñana radical skepticism alongside Jainism and early Buddhism. Original scriptures for the Ajīvika school are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories appear only in secondary sources like Jain and Buddhist texts which criticized them polemically. Ajivikas were organized renunciates forming discrete monastic communities with an ascetic lifestyle. They believed in Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism where everything is preordained by cosmic principles. Makkhali Gosala founded this philosophy as a major rival to early Buddhism and Jainism. Ajñana held it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain truth value. These sophists specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. Charvaka embraced direct perception and empirical evidence while rejecting ritualism and supernaturalism.
Rishabhadeva lived over a million years ago according to Jain tradition and is considered the founder of the present time cycle. Each individual soul possesses infinite knowledge and boundless bliss inherently. True nature remains veiled due to ignorance causing mistaken identification with the physical body. This misidentification leads to suffering and accumulation of karma binding the soul to birth and rebirth cycles. Liberation comes through self-realization called atma-anubhuti achieved via right faith and active awareness. Mahavira revitalized ancient teachings in the 6th century BCE roughly contemporaneous with Buddha. He unified the Śramaņa tradition originally established by Rishabhadeva millions of years prior. Parshvanatha existed approximately 250 years before Mahavira in the 9th century BCE. The world contains hińsā violence requiring all efforts toward attaining Ratnatraya: Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra. Jain philosophy upholds individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for decisions. Self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for liberation from samsara. Asceticism and ahimsa non-violence form core ethical practices influencing other Indian traditions.
Siddhartha Gautama taught doctrines that became known as Buddhism after his death around 483 BCE. Early schools like Mahāsānighika emphasized supramundane nature of Buddha while Sthavira schools debated eternalism regarding time. Vaibhāśika defended sarvāstitva meaning all exists as a form of eternalism supporting direct realism. Sautrāntika disagreed with Vaibhāśika on key points including their theory of time and nirvana. Pudgalavāda proposed controversial theory of person undergoing rebirth but is now extinct. Vibhajyavāda reached Kashmir South India and Sri Lanka surviving into modern Theravada tradition. Mahayana movement emerged around 1st century BCE introducing new ideas and scriptures called Mahayana sutras. Nagarjuna founded Madhyamaka focusing on emptiness doctrine stating phenomena lack essence or substance. Yogācāra held only consciousness exists known as Vijñānavāda the doctrine of consciousness. Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition focused on epistemology following Vijñānavāda doctrine. Tathāgatagarbha texts constitute third school sometimes recognized within Indian Mahayana thought. Vajrayāna placed in separate category due to unique tantric theories and practices. Many philosophies traveled to Central Asia and China after disappearing from India.
Brihaspati traditionally referred to as founder of Charvaka though some scholars dispute this claim. The word cārvāka derives from root carv meaning to chew according to grammarian Hemacandra. This etymology alludes to hedonistic precepts of eating drinking and being merry. Primary literature like Barhaspatya sutras were lost either due to waning popularity or unknown reasons. Teachings compiled from secondary sources including shastras sutras epic poetry dialogues of Gautama Buddha and Jain literature. Jayarāśi Bhaţţa wrote Tattvôpaplava-sińha providing unorthodox information about Charvaka tradition. One widely studied principle rejected inference as means to establish valid universal knowledge. Charvaka epistemology states inferred knowledge must acknowledge doubt whenever truth derived from observations. Ajñana held it impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain truth value. Even if possible such knowledge useless for final salvation. These sophists specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. Charvaka embraced direct perception empiricism conditional inference proper sources of knowledge rejecting ritualism supernaturalism.
Chanakya authored the Arthaśāstra dated to 4th century BCE discussing statecraft and economic policy. Valluvar wrote Kural text around 5th century CE dealing with ahimsa morality extending them to political philosophy. Mahatma Gandhi popularized ahimsa non-violence and Satyagraha during Indian struggle for independence. His methods influenced later Civil Rights movements led by Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar developed Progressive Utilization Theory as major socio-economic political philosophy. Upadhyaya drafted Integral Humanism concepts adopted in 1965 as official Jan Sangh doctrine. This approach made concept different from Socialism and Capitalism placing human being at center stage. New openness allowed Hindu nationalist movement alliance early 1970s with Gandhian Sarvodaya movement under J.P. Narayan. This marked first major public breakthrough for Hindu nationalist movement. The Arthaśātra remains one of earliest texts devoted specifically to political philosophy in India.
T.S. Eliot wrote that great philosophers of India make most European philosophers look like schoolboys. Arthur Schopenhauer used Indian philosophy to improve upon Kantian thought in his book The World As Will And Representation. He stated one who received sacred primitive Indian wisdom best prepared to hear what he had to say. The 19th-century American philosophical movement Transcendentalism also influenced by Indian thought. These connections demonstrate how ancient ideas traveled across continents influencing modern thinkers. Scholars continue studying these traditions through works by Surendranath Dasgupta and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. University College London offers study guides on Indian Philosophy while Internet Encyclopedia hosts articles. Applications extend to contemporary issues in psychology through institutions like Indian Psychology Institute. Historical archives preserve essential readings from Mysore Hiriyanna and others documenting evolution of thought.
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Common questions
What is the definition of ānvīkśikī in Chanakya's 4th century BCE Arthaśāstra?
Chanakya used the word ānvīkśikī to mean critical inquiry within his text written during the 4th century BCE. This term distinguished itself from darśana which simply meant seeing or looking at truth.
How does the traditional classification system divide Indian philosophical schools into āstika and nāstika groups?
The division depends on whether a school accepts the Vedas as valid knowledge. It also hinges on beliefs about Brahman, Atman, and the afterlife with exceptions like Mimamsa rejecting belief in an afterlife while Samkhya denies the premise of Brahman.
When did Parshvanatha lead the Śramaņa order according to historical records?
Parshvanatha led the Śramaņa order in the 9th century BCE according to historical records. He existed approximately 250 years before Mahavira who revitalized ancient teachings in the 6th century BCE.
Which six major orthodox schools emerged alongside five heterodox ones in classical Indian philosophy?
Six major orthodox schools emerged including Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmānsā, and Vedanta for the orthodox group. The heterodox group contained Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka traditions.
What is the core doctrine of the Charvaka tradition regarding knowledge and ritualism?
Charvaka embraced direct perception and empirical evidence while rejecting ritualism and supernaturalism. Primary literature like Barhaspatya sutras were lost either due to waning popularity or unknown reasons.