Chinese Communist Revolution

• 1. Century Of Humiliation And Decline

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  In the final years of the Qianlong Emperor's reign, China entered a long period of decline known as the century of humiliation. Successive administrations within the imperial Qing dynasty failed to address mounting problems of economic stagnation and official corruption. Massive peasant rebellions, most notably the Taiping Rebellion, cost millions of lives and ravaged the countryside. Japan and Western powers forced China to accept unequal treaties that gave them territorial concessions and allowed them to exploit the Chinese economy. By the time of the Boxer Rebellion, China had been turned into a semi-colony. The landlord system meant that between 50 and 65 percent of peasants owned little or no land. They needed to rent additional land from landlords who controlled the majority of agricultural property. In Guangdong more than half the rural population owned no land at all. Poor peasants owned an average of only 0.87 mu which is about 0.14 acres. They spent most of their time working rented land. Even in north China where most peasants owned some land, the plots were so small and infertile that they remained on the edge of starvation. Periodic famines were common during both the Qing dynasty and the later Republic of China. Between 1900 and the end of World War II, China experienced no less than six major famines costing tens of millions of lives.

• 2. Radicalization Of Urban Intellectuals

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  In the first decade of the twentieth century, young Chinese intellectuals such as Ma Junwu, Liang Qichao, and Zhao Bizhen translated socialist ideas into Chinese. This happened on a very small scale with no immediate impacts until after the 1911 Revolution. The failure of the new Chinese Republic to improve social conditions led scholars to take greater interest in Western ideas like socialism. The New Culture Movement was especially strong in cities like Shanghai where Chen Duxiu began publishing the left-leaning journal New Youth in 1915. New Youth quickly became the most popular and widely distributed journal amongst the intelligentsia during this period. In May 1919 news reached China that the Versailles Peace Conference had decided to give German-occupied province of Shandong to Japan rather than returning it to China. Large protests erupted in major cities across China known as the May Fourth Movement. Although led by students these protests included the first mass participation by those outside traditional intellectual elites. Mao Zedong later stated that the May Fourth Movement marked a new stage in China's bourgeois-democratic revolution against imperialism. Students formed study groups to discuss Marx's ideas including one at Peking University led by Li Dazhao. His study group included Chen Duxiu who was working as a dean at the university. Other future party leaders who became interested in the Communist movement at this time include Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai.

• 3. Founding The Communist Party

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  By 1920 skepticism about study groups suitability as vehicles for reform had become widespread. Most Chinese Marxists determined to follow the Leninist model which they understood as organizing a vanguard party around professional revolutionaries. The Chinese Communist Party was founded on the 23rd of July 1921 in Shanghai at the 1st National Congress of the CCP. The dozen delegates resolved to affiliate with the Communist International though the CCP would only formally become a member at its second congress. Chen was elected in absentia to be the first General Secretary. The Chinese Communist Party grew slowly in its first few years. The party had 50 members at the beginning of 1921, 200 in 1922, and 2,428 in 1925. In contrast the Kuomintang had 50,000 members already in 1923. The CCP continued to be dominated by students and urban intellectuals living in China's large cities where exposure to Marxist ideas was strongest. Three of the first four party congresses were held in Shanghai the other in Guangzhou. One exception was Peng Pai who became the first CCP leader to seriously engage with peasants. In Haifeng County in rural Guangdong he organized a powerful peasant association that campaigned for lower rents. By 1923 it claimed membership of about 100,000 or one-quarter of the population of the entire county.

• 4. Shanghai Massacre And Retreat

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  On the 12th of April 1927 Chiang Kai-shek and his right-wing faction ordered the massacre of Communists in Shanghai. The White Terror spread nationwide and the United Front collapsed. In Beijing 19 leading Communists were killed by Zhang Zuolin. That May tens of thousands of Communists and those suspected of being communists were killed. The CCP lost approximately half its members. Only in Wuhan where leftist sympathizer Wang Jingwei split from Chiang were the Communists safe to hold their Fifth National Congress. Under pressure from Chiang Wang eventually purged Communists from his government and declared loyalty to the right-wing government in Nanjing. In 1927 immediately after the collapse of Wang Jingwei's leftist Kuomintang government the CCP attempted uprisings in Guangzhou Nanchang and Hunan. Despite initial success they were unable to withstand direct pressure from the NRA. The defeat left an opening for machinations within party leadership. In late 1927 Xiang Zhongfa was sent as the CCP representative to celebrations of the Bolshevik Revolution's 10th Anniversary. While in Moscow Xiang convinced Soviet leadership to hold the CCP's 6th Party Congress there rather than in China. With help of the 28 Bolsheviks Chinese students studying Marxism at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University replaced Chen Duxiu as general secretary.

• 5. The Long March And Mao's Rise

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  After learning of disastrous results of Li Lisan's offensives Comintern sent Zhou Enlai and Qu Qiubai back from Moscow to moderate him. When this failed Comintern summoned Li to Moscow in October 1930. Bo Gu became nominal party secretary while Wang Ming became de facto paramount leader. Under influence of Moscow strategy of direct confrontation with KMT by organizing urban uprisings continued until 1933 when party leadership forced to evacuate to countryside. They fled to Jiangxi where Mao Zedong had considerable success setting up Chinese Soviet Republic established in November 1931. The Soviet helped expand CCP membership to over 300,000 and supported 100,000 Red Army soldiers. Mao's guerrilla tactics successfully repulsed three KMT encirclement campaigns. The CCP leadership quickly took over from Mao when they arrived from Shanghai. Following advice of Otto Braun they replaced cautious guerrilla tactics with more traditional military strategy. Subsequent fourth encirclement campaign was disaster for Communists forcing them to abandon South China altogether. They began the Long March a 9,000 kilometer retreat to Northern China where Chiang Kai-shek authority was weaker. In January 1935 CCP paused march to hold conference in Zunyi. Here Mao denounced party leadership for dogmatic adherence to urban revolution in face of repeated defeats.

• 6. Wartime Expansion And Second Front

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  In 1931 Japanese army occupied Manchuria which had nominally been under Chinese sovereignty. This triggered debates inside China on whether Nationalist Government should declare war on Japan. Chiang despite popular disapproval wanted to continue focus on wiping out Chinese Communist Party before opposing Japan. For this policy Chiang adopted slogan first internal pacification then external resistance. In contrast CCP August 1 Declaration called for end to civil war and united front against Japanese. Chiang policy of non-resistance contributed to decrease in support for Nationalists and increase in support for CCP. In 1936 Chiang arrested by two generals in Xi'an who forced him to form united front with CCP against Japan. Return for ceasefire CCP agreed to dissolve Red Army and place units under National Revolutionary Army command. War with Japan created enormous opportunity to expand CCP influence. French historian Lucien Bianco argues that before war peasantry not ready for revolution but nationalism caused by war changed situation. It was war that brought Chinese peasantry and China to revolution at very least considerably accelerated rise of CCP to power. Communists willingly adopted rhetoric of national resistance against imperialism. Using experience in rural guerrilla warfare they able to operate behind front lines and gain influence among numerous peasant resistance groups set up to fight Japanese.

• 7. Decisive Civil War Campaigns

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  By time Nationalist units arrived in major cities of northeastern China Communist forces commanded by Lin Biao already firm control most countryside including city of Jinzhou. On the 15th of November 1945 Nationalists began campaign roll back these gains. Chiang Kai-shek forces pushed as far as Jinzhou by the 26th of November 1945 meeting little resistance. Rather than confront advancing Nationalists head on Lin avoided decisive confrontations preserving strength army. Nationalist advance prompted Stalin to command Marshal Rodion Malinovsky give most captured Japanese weapons to CCP. From this point onwards Communist forces no longer just army of millet plus rifles. By the 3rd of May all Soviet troops withdrawn fighting between local Communist and Nationalist forces broken out in earnest. Conflict escalated scale nation-wide civil war over summer as Chiang launched large-scale assault on Communist territory north China with 113 brigades total 1.6 million troops. Knowing disadvantages manpower equipment CCP adopted passive defence strategy avoiding strong points KMT army prepared abandon territory preserve forces. After year power balance became more favorable to CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops while their strength grew about two million men. In March 1947 KMT achieved symbolic victory seizing Yan'an capital Yan'an Soviet.

• 8. Global Impact And Cold War Legacy

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  On the 1st of October 1949 Chairman Mao Zedong officially proclaimed founding People's Republic China at Tiananmen Square Beijing new capital. New national flag Five-starred Red Flag officially unveiled hoisted 21-gun salute. Ceremony followed PLA military parade commanded Nie Rongzhen Commander Northern China Military Region inspected Zhu De Commander-in-Chief PLA. Parade involved around 16,000 PLA officers personnel. First large-scale modern Chinese military parade country never done public review troops before under previous governments. Liu Bocheng proposed parade directors Yang Chengwu Tang Yanjie organized Soviet format having personally witnessed military parade Red Square Moscow. On the 1st of October 1949 Chiang Kai-shek 600,000 Nationalist troops about two million Nationalist-sympathizer refugees retreated island Taiwan. Last direct fighting between Nationalist and Communist forces ended Communist capture Hainan Island April 1950 though shelling guerrilla raids continued several years. June 1950 outbreak Korean War led United States government place Seventh Fleet Taiwan Strait prevent either side attacking other. CCP remained in government mainland China second-largest political party world. Communist victory major impact global balance power China became largest socialist state population third force Cold War following 1956 Sino-Soviet split.