Kingdom of Khotan

• 1. Oasis In The Desert

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  The Taklamakan Desert stretches north of the ancient city of Yotkan, a place where water flows from the Yurung-kàsh and Kara-kàsh rivers. These two rivers create vast quantities of water that make habitation possible in an otherwise arid climate. To the south lie the largely uninhabited Kunlun Mountains, which provided sediment to the river banks. This process increased the fertility of the land and allowed for agricultural productivity. Without this proximity to the mountain range, Khotan would not have become one of the largest oasis cities along the Silk Roads. The circumference of the ancient city was about 10 kilometers, making it relatively small compared to other major trade hubs. Yet its location next to the mountains ensured survival in a harsh environment.

• 2. Saka People And Language Shifts

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  Documents written in Prakrit dating to the third century AD show that the king of Khotan held the title hinajha, meaning generalissimo. This distinctively Iranian-based word suggests an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and royal power. Surviving documents indicate that the people spoke Saka, an Eastern Iranian language closely related to Sogdian. Archaeological evidence from the Sampul tapestry near Khotan may indicate a settled Saka population in the last quarter of the first millennium BC. Genetic studies reveal maternal lineages linked to Ossetians and Iranians, as well as Eastern-Mediterranean paternal lineages. The Khotanese Saka language became recognized as an official court language by the tenth century. It was used by rulers for administrative documentation alongside Gandhari Prakrit, which had been spoken at the royal court since the third century.

• 3. Buddhist Manuscripts And Faith

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  The most famous Buddhist manuscript preserved from Khotan is the Book of Zambasta. Unlike other texts written in Old Khotanese, this work is the only original piece of literature found there. All other documents were translations from Sanskrit. Chinese pilgrim Faxian visited the kingdom in 399 AD and reported on its active Buddhist community. He noted fourteen large viharas and many small ones within the city. Monks such as Śikşānanda and Śīladharma played important roles in transmitting Buddhism eastward into China. The kingdom remained a major center of Mahayana Buddhism until the eleventh century. Xuanzang stayed seven to eight months in Khotan between 640 and 645 AD, writing detailed accounts of the region. His observations confirm that the vast majority of the population practiced Buddhism during his time.

• 4. Jade Exports And Silk Smuggling

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  Chinese carvers in Xinglongwa and Chahai had been carving ring-shaped pendants from greenish jade as early as 5000 BC. Hundreds of jade pieces found in the tomb of Fuhao from the late Shang dynasty originated from Khotan. Implements created with lighter-colored Khotanese jade appeared in Anyang royal tombs dating to 1200 BC. Jade trade helped the kingdom hold influence over surrounding regions for centuries. Silk cultivation began outside inland China when a princess smuggled silkworm eggs hidden in her headdress. This event likely occurred in the first half of the first century AD according to legend. The King of Khotan requested a Chinese princess in marriage to obtain mulberry seeds and weaving techniques. Silk became a major currency used to purchase barley, camels, horses, and animal skins. Many travelers used silk as payment throughout the kingdom.

• 5. Han Dynasty And Tibetan Conflicts

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  King Guangde submitted to the Han dynasty in 73 AD after Ban Chao killed a soothsayer who demanded his horse. The king then killed the Xiongnu agent and offered allegiance to Han. By that time, the population had more than quadrupled compared to earlier records. The Tang campaign against oasis states began in 640 AD, establishing Four Garrisons including one at Khotan. Tibetans defeated the Chinese and took control of these garrisons starting in 665 AD. Khotan was lost completely following the An Lushan Rebellion which started in 755 AD. The rebellion weakened Tang control significantly. In 792, the city fell under the Tibetan Empire again. It gained independence once more in 851 AD when Viśa' Sañbhava claimed descent from the Tang imperial family. He married Cao Yijin's daughter, ruler of the Guiyi Circuit of Dunhuang.

• 6. Islamic Conquest And Final Years

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  In 1006, Muslim Kara-Khanid ruler Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan, ending its existence as an independent Buddhist state. A long war ensued between Islamic Kashgar and Buddhist Khotan beginning around 934 AD when Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam. Ali Arslan, nephew or grandson of Satuq, died during battles with Buddhists. Accounts describe years where blood flowed like the Oxus river and heads littered battlefields like stones. Despite foreign origins, four Imams from Mada'in are viewed as local saints by current Muslim populations. By 1063, a Song source noted that rulers referred to themselves as kara-khan, indicating dominance over Khotan. Marco Polo visited between 1271 and 1275, reporting that inhabitants worshipped Mohamet. Mahmud al-Kashgari recorded poems about the conquest written in Turkic language during the eleventh century.