Cereal
Grains found at the Ohalo II site in Israel date back 19,000 years. These charred remnants of wild wheat and barley show early human gathering habits before farming began. The Neolithic period saw independent domestication events across multiple continents. Wheat and barley took root in the Fertile Crescent roughly 8,000 years ago. Rice and millets were cultivated by farmers in East Asia during the same era. Sorghum and other millets emerged as crops in sub-Saharan West Africa primarily for livestock feed. Maize arose from a single domestication event in Mesoamerica about 9,000 years ago. Indigenous peoples of the Americas developed this crop without outside influence. Complex civilizations rose where cereal agriculture created food surpluses. Power concentrated in cities when part of the harvest could be appropriated from farmers. Religion often shaped itself around grain goddesses like Ashnan in Mesopotamia. The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture and gave her name to the term cereal.
Production of high-yield cereal crops increased significantly worldwide during the second half of the 20th century. This technological shift was known as the Green Revolution and funded by development organizations. Strategies included mechanized tilling, monoculture planting, nitrogen fertilizers, and breeding new seed strains. Innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield per plant. These modern high-yield crops tend to have low-quality proteins with essential amino acid deficiencies. They are high in carbohydrates but lack balanced essential fatty acids and vitamins. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties gained popularity with organic movements in the early 21st century. There is a tradeoff in yield per plant that puts pressure on resource-poor areas. Food crops are sometimes replaced with cash crops due to these economic pressures. Rice production in India helped resolve food shortages in the mid-twentieth century through these methods.
Cereals belong to the Poaceae family and produce edible grains called caryopses. A caryopsis is a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp. Grass stems are hollow except at the nodes and bear narrow alternate leaves in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem forming a leaf-sheath. Flowers are usually hermaphroditic though maize is an exception. Pollination occurs mainly via wind although insects occasionally play a role. Most cereals are annuals producing one crop from each planting. Rice can survive as a perennial producing a ratoon crop after harvest. Cool-season cereals like barley grow best when temperatures stay below specific thresholds. Warm-season cereals such as sorghum require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost. Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum limits yields for many cereal varieties. Rusts and powdery mildews remain significant constraints on global production levels.
Tillage operations lead to soil erosion and increased runoff into waterways. Irrigation consumes large quantities of water extracted from lakes rivers or aquifers. Lowering the water table causes salination of aquifers over time. Fertilizer production contributes to global warming while its use leads to pollution. Arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel releasing greenhouse gases. Pesticide usage harms wildlife populations including bees that pollinate crops. No-till farming reduces tillage impacts by direct drilling of cereal seeds. Developing perennial crop varieties means farmers no longer need to till annually. Polycultures growing several crops in a single field reduce fertilizer needs. Intercropping cereals with legumes fixes nitrogen naturally without chemical inputs. Contour trenching methods reduce irrigation needs through efficient water harvesting techniques.
Three cereals maize wheat and rice accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012. Maize stands as the largest exporter commodity from the United States. India exports the most rice globally while China imports both maize and rice heavily. Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage whether measured by production or trade. Speculation compounded production factors leading to rapid inflation during the 2007, 2008 food price crisis. The Russian invasion of Ukraine disrupted wheat supplies causing a global food price crisis in 2022. Countries heavily dependent on wheat flour face severe food security risks when trade routes close. Grain elevators store harvested crops before they are sold later to markets. Futures trading helps mitigate risks if harvests fail due to weather or disease. Several major producers dominate the market creating reliance among importing nations.
Whole grains provide carbohydrates polyunsaturated fats protein vitamins and minerals together. Removal of bran and germ leaves only the starchy endosperm behind. Nutrients added during fortification include iron calcium zinc and folate. Some cereals lack the essential amino acid lysine requiring dietary balance with legumes. Many legumes lack methionine which grains contain forming a balanced diet for vegetarians. Combinations like dal lentils with rice work well for South Indians and Bengalis. Beans paired with maize tortillas create complete proteins across several cultures. Commercial breakfast cereals may be highly processed combined with sugars oils and other products. In developing countries cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance for populations. Refined and processed grains remain substantial forms of consumption in developed nations.
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Common questions
When did grains first appear at the Ohalo II site in Israel?
Grains found at the Ohalo II site in Israel date back 19,000 years. These charred remnants of wild wheat and barley show early human gathering habits before farming began.
Where were wheat and barley domesticated during the Neolithic period?
Wheat and barley took root in the Fertile Crescent roughly 8,000 years ago. Rice and millets were cultivated by farmers in East Asia during the same era.
What is the scientific family name for cereal plants?
Cereals belong to the Poaceae family and produce edible grains called caryopses. A caryopsis is a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp.
Which three cereals accounted for 89% of all global production in 2012?
Three cereals maize wheat and rice accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012. Maize stands as the largest exporter commodity from the United States.
How does the Green Revolution affect protein quality in modern high-yield crops?
These modern high-yield crops tend to have low-quality proteins with essential amino acid deficiencies. They are high in carbohydrates but lack balanced essential fatty acids and vitamins.