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Fascism

Ch. 1 of 8
— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Contents

Fascism

8 sections

  • Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology that rose to prominence in early-twentieth-century Europe. Historian Ian Kershaw once wrote that trying to define it is "like trying to nail jelly to the wall." That difficulty is not a footnote. It sits at the center of everything scholars have argued about for a century. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I before spreading to Germany and beyond. Yet no two groups called fascist look quite alike, and each carries some element the others lack. So how did a word borrowed from a bundle of sticks come to name dictatorship, total war, and genocide? Why do thinkers who agree on almost nothing keep circling the same handful of traits? And how did an ideology largely disgraced in 1945 keep finding new vocabulary, from neo-fascist to post-fascist, to describe its echoes today?

  • The Italian term fascismo comes from fascio, meaning bundle of sticks, ultimately from the Latin fasces. The image carried a precise lesson. A single rod snaps easily. A bound bundle resists. That symbolism of strength through unity gave the movement its emblem and its name. The fasci themselves were political organizations in Italy, groups resembling guilds or syndicates. Benito Mussolini said the Fasces of Revolutionary Action were founded in Italy in 1915. In 1919 he founded the Italian Fasces of Combat in Milan, which became the National Fascist Party two years later. The fascists linked the term to the ancient Roman fascio littorio, a bundle of rods tied around an axe, an old symbol of a civic magistrate's authority carried by his lictors. The irony is that before 1914 the fasces belonged mostly to the other side. Various left-wing, liberal, or republican movements used it freely. Robert Paxton notes that Marianne, the symbol of the French Republic, was often shown in the nineteenth century carrying the fasces to represent Republican solidarity against aristocratic and clerical enemies. The motif appears in architecture too, on the Sheldonian Theater at Oxford University and on the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. A symbol of republican unity was thus turned to the service of dictatorship.

  • Stanley G. Payne, Roger Griffin, and Roger Eatwell built what they called the "new consensus" around a single idea: the myth of national rebirth, which they named palingenesis. Payne's definition rests on three concepts. There are fascist negations, meaning anti-liberalism, anti-communism, and anti-conservatism. There are fascist goals, the building of a nationalist dictatorship and the expansion of the nation into an empire. And there is fascist style, a political aesthetic of romantic symbolism, mass mobilization, and charismatic authoritarian leadership. Griffin distilled the core to a "palingenetic form of populist ultranationalism," the rebirth myth joined to a myth of decadence. Walter Laqueur saw the core tenets as self-evident: nationalism, social Darwinism, racialism, the need for leadership and obedience, and the negation of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Robert Paxton offered a darker portrait, describing an obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood, soothed by cults of unity, energy, and purity. Critics fired back at the new consensus. They argued it treated fascism as a static ideal type, ignoring its dynamic and contradictory nature. They pointed out that fascism preserved anti-communism while taking power through alliance with conservatives. Umberto Eco listed fourteen features of what he called "Ur-Fascism," or eternal fascism, noting that many of them contradict each other. Historian John Lukacs went further and argued that there is no such thing as generic fascism at all.

  • World War I, in the fascist imagination, was not a catastrophe but a revolution. The advent of total war and mass mobilization erased the distinction between civilian and combatant. Civilians had become essential to economic production for the war effort, and so a "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens were tied to the military in some manner. The war produced a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions to serve on the front lines or supply those who did. It claimed unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens. Fascists read this as the dawn of a new era fusing state power with mass politics, technology, and a mobilizing myth. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the Italian political left split badly. The Italian Socialist Party opposed the war, but some revolutionary syndicalists backed war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Mussolini, expelled as chief editor of the Socialist newspaper Avanti! for his anti-German stance, joined the interventionist cause. The term "fascism" was first used in 1915 by members of his Fasces of Revolutionary Action. Their first meeting fell on the 24th of January 1915. Similar ideas surfaced in Germany. The sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of a "National Socialism" within the "ideas of 1914," German values of duty, discipline, and order set against the "ideas of 1789." The October Revolution of 1917 sharpened everything. Mussolini first praised it, then dismissed Lenin as merely a new version of Tsar Nicholas II.

  • The Manifesto of the Italian Fasces of Combat was presented on the 6th of June 1919 in the fascist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, written by Alceste De Ambris and the futurist leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Its demands read almost like a program of the left. It supported universal suffrage, including votes for women. It called for an eight-hour work day, a minimum wage, and worker representation in industrial management. It demanded a strong progressive tax on capital, confiscation of the property of religious institutions, and revision of military contracts so the government could seize 85 percent of profits. It even sought to cut the retirement age from 65 to 55. Then came the great reversal. In 1920 militant strikes by industrial workers peaked in Italy, the years 1919 and 1920 remembered as the "Red Year," the Biennio Rosso. Mussolini allied with industrial businesses and attacked workers and peasants in the name of order. To win over conservatives, fascism abandoned its earlier populism, republicanism, and anticlericalism. It adopted policies favoring free enterprise and accepted the Catholic Church and the monarchy. It promoted family values and worked to push women out of the workforce. It banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion in 1926, declaring both crimes against the state. The payoff was numerical. Before these accommodations the movement was small and urban, with about a thousand members. After them, membership soared to roughly 250,000 by 1921.

  • On the 24th of October 1922, the Fascist Party held its congress in Naples, and Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to seize public buildings and converge on three points around Rome. The Italian government, a left-wing coalition, was internally divided and could not respond. King Victor Emmanuel III judged the risk of bloodshed in Rome too high. He appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, and Mussolini arrived on the 30th of October to accept. Fascist propaganda inflated this "March on Rome" into a heroic seizure of power. Power did not yet mean dictatorship. Mussolini led a coalition, and his liberal finance minister Alberto De Stefani balanced the budget through deep cuts to the civil service. The turn came with the Acerbo Law, which handed a majority of parliamentary seats to any list winning a quarter of the vote. Through fascist violence and intimidation, the list won. Then Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti was kidnapped and murdered by a Fascist, and opposition deputies walked out in the Aventine Secession. On the 3rd of January 1925, Mussolini told parliament he was personally responsible for what had happened, yet insisted he had done nothing wrong. He proclaimed himself dictator. A decree in December 1925 made him answerable only to the King. Adolf Hitler was watching. Less than a month after the March on Rome he had begun modeling himself and the Nazi Party on Mussolini. His own attempt, a "March on Berlin," failed as the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich in November 1923.

  • Mussolini's The Doctrine of Fascism, published in 1932 and partly ghostwritten by the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, declared the Fascist conception of the state to be all-embracing, a totalitarian synthesis outside which no human or spiritual values could exist. In 1925 the regime built a corporatist economy through the Palazzo Vidoni Pact, in which the employers' association Confindustria and fascist trade unions recognized each other as sole representatives, shutting out non-fascist unions. A Ministry of Corporations organized the economy into 22 sectoral corporations, banned strikes and lock-outs, and in 1927 issued the Charter of Labour. In practice these corporations had little independence and were largely controlled by the regime. Economists still dispute whether a distinctly fascist economy existed at all. Gerald Feldman and Timothy Mason argue fascism lacked any coherent economic ideology. What is documented is the scale of state control. Mussolini created the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, a giant state holding company that funded failing private firms and was made permanent in 1937. In 1934 he claimed three-fourths of the Italian economy lay in the hands of the state. The IRI reported holding 48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy. Martin Blinkhorn estimated Italy's public sector was second only to that of Stalin's Russia. Abroad, the regime pursued empire. Claiming Italians were a superior race, it sought to settle 10 to 15 million Italians in Libya. The Pacification of Libya brought mass killings, concentration camps, and forced starvation, and Italian authorities expelled 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica.

  • On the 28th of April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans. Two days later, on the 30th of April, Hitler died by suicide, and Germany soon surrendered. From November 1945 through 1949, an International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg tried and convicted Nazi political, military, and economic leaders of war crimes, with many of the worst offenders sentenced to death. Since 1945 fascism has been largely disgraced, and few parties have openly claimed the name. The word survived mainly as an insult. George Orwell observed in 1944 that almost any English person would accept "bully" as a synonym for fascist, and in 1946 wrote that the term had lost all meaning except as a marker of something not desirable. It has been hurled at Marxist-Leninist regimes in Cuba and Vietnam, traded between Chinese and Soviet Marxists during the Sino-Soviet split, and applied to the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s. Yet real heirs persisted. Francisco Franco's Falangist one-party state in Spain endured until his death in 1975. In Italy, the Italian Social Movement evolved into the post-fascist National Alliance, and later a group split from The People of Freedom to refound a party as Brothers of Italy. After the 2008 financial crisis, Greece's Golden Dawn rose from obscurity into parliament, and on the 7th of October 2020 an Athens Appeals Court found its leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and six others guilty of running a criminal organization. The argument over the word now reaches Russia, where Timothy Snyder has called Putin's regime "the world center of fascism," while Roger Griffin counters that Putin is a reactionary trying to recreate a modified Soviet Union rather than a revolutionary remaking society.

Updated

Common questions

What is fascism as a political ideology?

Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement that rose to prominence in early-twentieth-century Europe. It is characterized by support for a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, and a belief in natural social hierarchy. It stands opposed to communism, democracy, liberalism, pluralism, and socialism.

Where did the word fascism come from?

The Italian term fascismo derives from fascio, meaning bundle of sticks, ultimately from the Latin fasces. The fascists linked it to the ancient Roman fascio littorio, a bundle of rods tied around an axe carried by a magistrate's lictors. The symbolism suggested strength through unity, since a single rod breaks easily but a bundle does not.

Who founded the first fascist movement and when?

Benito Mussolini said the Fasces of Revolutionary Action were founded in Italy in 1915, and the term fascism was first used that year by its members. In 1919 Mussolini founded the Italian Fasces of Combat in Milan, which became the National Fascist Party two years later.

How did Mussolini come to power in Italy?

On the 24th of October 1922 Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to converge on Rome in the event known as the March on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III, judging the risk of bloodshed too high, appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, and he arrived on the 30th of October to accept. On the 3rd of January 1925 Mussolini proclaimed himself dictator of Italy.

Why is fascism so hard to define?

Historian Ian Kershaw compared defining fascism to nailing jelly to the wall, because each group called fascist has unique elements and definitions are often criticized as too broad or too narrow. The new consensus of Stanley Payne, Roger Griffin, and Roger Eatwell centered on the myth of national rebirth, called palingenesis, but other scholars disputed it and some, like John Lukacs, denied that generic fascism exists at all.

What happened to fascism after World War II?

On the 28th of April 1945 Mussolini was executed by Italian communist partisans, and Hitler died by suicide on the 30th of April. From November 1945 through 1949 the Nuremberg trials convicted Nazi leaders of war crimes. Since 1945 fascism has been largely disgraced, with the terms neo-fascist and post-fascist applied to later movements such as Greece's Golden Dawn.

All sources

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  170. 170BookFascism Outside of EuropeColumbia University Press — 2001
  171. 171BookIs Russia Fascist?: Unravelling Propaganda East and WestMarlene Laruelle — Cornell University Press — 2021
  172. 172JournalSo, Is Russia Fascist Now? Labels and Policy ImplicationsMarlene Laruelle — 2022
  173. 173JournalMass Dictatorship – A Transnational Formation of ModernityJie-Hyun Lim — 2012
  174. 174BookThe "New Man" in Radical Right Ideology and Practice, 1919-45David Alegre Lorenz — Bloomsbury Publishing — 2023
  175. 175BookRoutledge International Handbook of Diversity StudiesKieth Lowe — Routledge — 2014
  176. 176BookThe Hitler of HistoryJohn Lukacs — Vintage Books — 1998
  177. 177BookAustro-German Relations in the Anschluss EraRadomír Luža — Princeton University Press — 21 September 1975
  178. 178BookItalian Fascisms: from Pareto to GentileAdrian Lyttelton — Cape — 1973
  179. 179BookMussoliniDenis Mack Smith — Vintage Books — 1983
  180. 180BookModern Italy: A Political HistoryDenis Mack Smith — The University of Michigan Press — 1997
  181. 181MagazineNew Research Reveals How the Nazis Targeted Transgender PeopleLaurie Marhoefer — 21 September 2023
  182. 182BookTwentieth-Century SexualityAngus McLaren — Blackwell Publishing — 1999
  183. 183BookFascistsMichael Mann — Cambridge University Press — 2004
  184. 184BookMussolini and Italian FascismHarmish McDonald — Nelson Thornes — 1999
  185. 185NewsThe Arrest of the Nazi Gangsters of Golden Dawn in GreeceSavvas Michael — EEK — 30 September 2013
  186. 186BookMilitary EffectivenessAllan R. Millett et al. — Cambridge University Press — 2010
  187. 187BookPrivate and Public Enterprise in Europe: Energy, Telecommunications and Transport, 1830–1990Robert Millward — Cambridge University Press — 2007
  188. 188BookItalian fascism, 1919–1945Philip Morgan — Macmillan Inc. — 1995
  189. 189BookFascism in Europe, 1919–1945Philip Morgan — Routledge — 2003
  190. 190JournalPutin's Russia as a fascist political systemAlexander J. Motyl — March 2016
  191. 191Yes, Putin and Russia are fascist. How they meet the textbook definitionAlexander J. Motyl — 30 March 2022
  192. 192BookPopulism: A Very Short IntroductionCas Mudde et al. — Oxford University Press — 2017
  193. 193BookMussolini: An Intimate BiographyRachele Mussolini — Pocket Books — 1977
  194. 194BookSmall WonderWalter Nelson — Little, Brown & Company — 1967
  195. 195BookFascismMark Neocleous — Minnesota University Press — 1997
  196. 196BookMussoliniPeter Neville — Routledge — 2004
  197. 197BookThe Columbia Guide to the HolocaustDonald L. Niewyk et al. — Columbia University Press — 2000
  198. 198BookThe Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National SocialismErnst Nolte — Weidenfeld & Nicolson — 1965
  199. 199BookMussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the FascistPaul O'Brien — Bloomsbury Publishing — 2014
  200. 200JournalLiberal anti-fascism in the 1930s the case of Sir Ernest BarkerAndrzej Olechnowicz — 2005
  201. 201BookWar and Economy in the Third ReichRichard J. Overy — Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press) — 1994
  202. 202BookThe Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's RussiaRichard Overy — Penguin — 2005
  203. 203BookPerón: A biographyJoseph A. Page — Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial Argentina — 2014
  204. 204MagazineWho Are You Calling a Fascist?Alex Pareene et al. — 29 March 2023
  205. 205NewsWhy white nationalists are drawn to CharlottesvilleMadison Park — 12 August 2017
  206. 206BookFascism: A Very Short IntroductionKevin Passmore — Oxford University Press — 2002
  207. 207BookWomen, Gender, and Fascism in Europe, 1919–45Kevin Passmore — Manchester University Press — 2003
  208. 208BookHitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century ItalyBruce F. Pauley — Harlan Davidson, Inc. — 2003
  209. 209JournalThe five stages of fascismRobert O. Paxton — 1998
  210. 210BookThe Anatomy of FascismRobert O. Paxton — Alfred A. Knopf — 2004
  211. 211BookThe Anatomy of FascismRobert O. Paxton — Random House — 2005
  212. 212BookA History of Spain and PortugalStanley G. Payne — University of Wisconsin Press — 1973
  213. 213BookFascism: Comparison and DefinitionStanley G. Payne — University of Wisconsin Press — 1980
  214. 214BookEncyclopaedia of Government and PoliticsStanley Payne — Routledge — 1992
  215. 215BookReappraisals of FascismStanley G. Payne — New Viewpoints — 1975
  216. 216BookA History of Fascism, 1914–45Stanley G. Payne — University of Wisconsin Press — 1995
  217. 217BookFranco: A Personal and Political BiographyStanley G. Payne et al. — University of Wisconsin Press — 2014
  218. 218BookThe Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the ReexaminedIndiana University Press — 2002
  219. 219BookThe Fascist Experience in ItalyJohn Pollard — Routledge — 1998
  220. 220BookAntisemitism Worldwide 2000/1Dina Porat et al. — University of Nebraska Press — 2002
  221. 221BookRacial Hygiene: Medicine Under the NazisRobert E. Proctor — Harvard University Press — 1989
  222. 222BookTutti fascisti!Claudio Quarantotto — Edizioni del Borghese — 1976
  223. 223BookPopulation Politics in Twentieth-century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal DemocraciesMaria Sophia Quine — Routledge — 1996
  224. 224BookEuroscepticism and the Rising Threat from the Left and Right: The Concept of Millennial FascismPrebble Q. Ramswell — Lexington Books — 2017
  225. 225BookThe Mass Psychology of FascismWilhelm Reich — HarperCollins — 1970
  226. 226BookLos muchachos judíos peronistas: Judeosargentinos y apoyo al JusticialismoRaanan Rein — Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial Argentina — 2015
  227. 227BookFascism: Theory and PracticeDavid Renton — Pluto Press — 1999
  228. 228BookBritish Fascism: A Discourse-Historical AnalysisJohn E. Richardson — Ibidem Press — 2017
  229. 229BookThe Cambridge History of CommunismAlfred J. Rieber — Cambridge University Press — 2017
  230. 230BookA Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present DayP. J. A. N. Rietbergen — Bekking — 2000
  231. 231BookFascism's European empireDavide Rodogno — Cambridge University Press — 2006
  232. 232JournalAntebellum Palingenetic Ultranationalism: The Case for including the United States in Comparative Fascist StudiesStefan Roel Reyes — Brill — 17 December 2019
  233. 233Journal'Christian Patriots': The Intersection Between Proto-fascism and Clerical Fascism in the Antebellum SouthStefan Roel Reyes — 24 November 2021
  234. 234Perón, Reformismo y nazi fascismo durante la Segunda Guerra MundialRicardo Romero — Departamento de Ciencias Sociales, Colegio nacional de Buenos Aires, UBA — 2015
  235. 235BookAgainst the Fascist CreepAlexander Reid Ross — AK Press — 2017
  236. 236The end of Golden Dawn: has Greece shown us how to deal with neo-Nazis?Georgios Samaras — 26 November 2020
  237. 237BookA Primer of Italian FascismJeffrey Thompson Schnapp et al. — University of Nebraska Press — 2000
  238. 238BookEurope for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical RightChristina Schori Liang — Ashgate Publishing — 2013
  239. 239BookGermany and the Second World War: Volume III: The Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941 (From Italy's Declaration of Non-Belligerence to the Entry of the United States into the War)Gerhard Schreiber et al. — Oxford University Press — 1995
  240. 240BookTransatlantic Antifascisms: From the Spanish Civil War to the End of World War IIMichael Seidman — Cambridge University Press — 2017
  241. 241JournalThe Rise of Counterrevolutionary Anti-Fascism in the United States from the Munich Conference to the Fall of FranceMichael Seidman — 20 December 2020
  242. 242JournalPan-European thought in British fascism: the International Third Position and the Alliance for Peace and FreedomRyan Shaffer — 2018
  243. 243BookRussian Fascism: Traditions Tendencies MovementsStephen Shenfield — Routledge — 2016
  244. 244BookThe Rise and Fall of the Third ReichWilliam L. Shirer — Simon & Schuster — 1960
  245. 245NewsFascism Scholar Says U.S. Is 'Losing Its Democratic Status'Christianna Silva — 6 September 2020
  246. 246BookEurope, A Political Profile: An American Companion to European PoliticsHans Slomp — ABC-CLIO — 2011
  247. 247Neo-Nazi
  248. 248BookPolitics of Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National WelfareAlberto Spektorowski et al. — Routledge — 2013
  249. 249BookWestern CivilizationJackson J. Spielvogel — Wadsworth, Cengage Learning — 2012
  250. 250BookHitler's GermanyRoderick Stackelberg — Routledge — 1999
  251. 251News'This is a huge victory.' Oakdale white supremacist revels after deadly Virginia clashGarth Stapley — 14 August 2017
  252. 252BookThe Triumph of the Dark: European International History, 1933–1939Zara Steiner — Oxford University Press — 2011
  253. 253ThesisIn Dubious Battle: Mussolini's Mentalité and Italian Foreign Policy, 1936–1939G. Bruce Strang — McMaster University — 2000
  254. 254BookThe Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political RevolutionZeev Sternhell et al. — Princeton University Press — 1994
  255. 255BookInternational Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New ConsensusZeev Sternhell — Bloomsbury Academic — 1998
  256. 256NewsFascism in America: a long history that predates TrumpRich Tenorio — 30 September 2023
  257. 257BookWomen's studies encyclopediaHelen Tierney — Greenwood Publishing Group — 1999
  258. 258BookThe Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since UnificationOxford University Press — 2013
  259. 259BookAntiauthoritarian Youth Culture in Francoist Spain: Clashing with FascismLouie Dean Valencia-García — Bloomsbury Academic — 2018
  260. 260BookVarieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth CenturyEugen Weber — Van Nostrand Reinhold Company — 1982
  261. 261NewsNeo-Confederate League of the South Banned From Armed Protesting in CharlottesvilleKelly Weill — 27 March 2018
  262. 262BookThe Historiography of GenocideAnton Weiss-Wendt et al. — Springer — 2008
  263. 263BookModernism, Volumes 1–2Jobst Welge — John Benjamins Publishing — 2007
  264. 264Systemic Transformations and the Drift Toward Fascism in RussiaWilson Center — 11 February 2008
  265. 265JournalLeon Trotsky's Theory of FascismRobert Wistrich — SAGE Publishing — October 1976
  266. 266BookThe Politics of Fear: The Shameless Normalization of Far-Right DiscourseRuth Wodak — SAGE Publications — 2020
  267. 267BookFascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist IdeologyDaniel Woodley — Routledge — 2010
  268. 268BookFascism in EuropeStuart Woolf — Methuen — 1981
  269. 269BookFascism in EuropeStuart Joseph Woolf — Taylor & Francis — 1983
  270. 270NewsHere's what a neo-Nazi rally looks like in 2017 AmericaCleve R. Jr. Wootson — 13 August 2017
  271. 271BookExplaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political BehaviorOliver Woshinsky — Routledge — 2008
  272. 272BookModern Free Society and Its Nemesis: Liberty Versus Conservatism in the New MillenniumMilan Zafirovski — Lexington Books — 2008
  273. 273BookNationalism in Europe, 1890–1940Oliver Zimmer — Palgrave — 2003
  274. 274BookJews in Italy Under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945Joshua D. Zimmerman — Cambridge University Press — 27 June 2005
  275. 275FascismBertrand Badie et al. — SAGE Publications — 2011
  276. 276BookWorld Fascism: A Historical EncyclopediaCyprian Blamires — ABC-CLIO — 2006
  277. 277BookWorld Fascism: A Historical EncyclopediaCyprian Blamires — ABC-CLIO, Inc. — 2006b
  278. 278Fasces
  279. 279Fascism8 January 2008
  280. 280Fascism
  281. 281Italy: The Fascist Era
  282. 282Fiume question
  283. 283Franco's dictatorship
  284. 284Volksgemeinschaft2019
  285. 285NeofascismoEnciclopedia Italiana — 31 October 2014
  286. 286Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar GermanyUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  287. 287"Degenerate" ArtUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  288. 288FascismUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  289. 289Persecution of Homosexuals in the Third ReichUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  290. 290FascismPeter Staudenmaier — Routledge — 2004
  291. 291BookThe Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943Ciano Galeazzo — Simon Publications — 2001
  292. 292BookThe Doctrine of FascismGiovanni Gentile — 1932
  293. 293BookGoebbels on the Jews: The Complete Diary Entries – 1923 to 1945Joseph Goebbels — 2019
  294. 294BookThe Goebbels Diaries 1939–19411983
  295. 295BookMein KampfAdolf Hitler — 1925
  296. 296BookMy LifeOswald Mosely — Nelson Publications — 1968
  297. 297BookDoctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928–1939António de Oliveira Salazar — Faber and Faber — 1939
  298. 298BookTextos de Doctrina PolíticaJosé Antonio Primo de Rivera — Delegación Nacional de la Sección Femenina del Movimiento — 1971
  299. 299BookPolitical Ideology TodayIan Adams — Manchester University Press — 1993
  300. 300BookThe Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political ThoughtTerence Ball et al. — Cambridge University Press — 2003
  301. 301BookFascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923–1930Shlomo Ben-Ami — Oxford University Press — 1983
  302. 302BookSalazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of InterpretationAntónio Costa Pinto — Social Science Monographs — 1995
  303. 303BookRethinking the Nature of Fascism: Comparative PerspectivesPalgrave Macmillan — 2011
  304. 304BookCharisma and Fascism in Interwar EuropeRoutledge — 2014
  305. 305BookIn the Shadow of the Fasces: Political Design in Fascist ItalyDennis P. Doordan — The MIT Press — 1995
  306. 306BookRehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar GermanyPeter Fritzsche — Oxford University Press — 1990
  307. 307BookRevolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991Roger Griffin — Routledge — 2000
  308. 308BookIntroduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to HabermasDavid Held — University of California Press — 1980
  309. 309BookState, Society and Mobilization in Europe During the First World WarJohn Horne — Cambridge University Press — 2002
  310. 310JournalTo Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'Aristotle A. Kallis — April 2003a
  311. 311BookThe Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in EuropeDavid I. Kertzer — Oxford University Press — 2014
  312. 312BookPour une étude scientifique du fascismeDimitri Kitsikis — Ars Magna Editions. — 2005
  313. 313BookJean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascismeDimitri Kitsikis — Ars Magna Editions. — 2006
  314. 314BookMussolini unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last WarMacGregor Knox — Cambridge University Press — 1999
  315. 315BookPolitics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, PopulismErnesto Laclau — Verso Books — 1977
  316. 316BookLatin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar RegimesPaul H Lewis — Greenwood Publishing Group — 2002
  317. 317BookA History of Fascism in France: From the First World War to the National FrontChris Millington — Bloomsbury — 2019
  318. 318BookFashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, CitizenshipWendy Parkins — Berg Publishers — 2002
  319. 319BookThe Franco Regime, 1936–1975Stanley G. Payne — University of Wisconsin Press — 1987
  320. 320BookFalange: A History of Spanish FascismStanley G. Payne — Textbook Publishers. — 2003
  321. 321BookSalazar e os Fascismos: Ensaio Breve de História ComparadaFernando Rosas — Edições Tinta-da-China — 2019
  322. 322JournalNational Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?Wolfgang Sauer — December 1967
  323. 323BookEconomy and Class Structure of German FascismAlfred Sohn-Rethel — CSE Bks — 1978
  324. 324BookPopular Autocracy in Greece, 1936–1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis MetaxasPanayiotis J Vatikiotis — Routledge — 1988
  325. 325BookWebster's II New College DictionaryHoughton Mifflin Reference Books — 2005
  326. 326BookThe Fascist Tradition: Radical Right-Wing Extremism in Modern EuropeJohn Weiss — Harper & Row — 1967
  327. 327Encyclopedia Britannica Fascism

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