Nationalism
In 1793, the revolutionary government of France declared a mass conscription known as the levée en masse. This decree called upon all French citizens to serve the Republic in permanent requisition until enemies were driven from their territory. Young men went to battle while married men forged arms and children turned old linen into lint for bandages. This moment marked a shift where political authority derived from a people conscious of its shared destiny rather than dynastic accident. The word nation itself gained prominence around 1798 in English language usage before spreading widely through the nineteenth century. Nationalism holds that the nation should be congruent with the state and aims to gain sovereignty over perceived homeland. It presupposes the existence of a particular nation and tends to promote its interests free from outside interference. A single national identity builds on shared social characteristics like culture, ethnicity, language, religion, or belief in a singular history. Various definitions exist leading to different types such as ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism. The moral value remains subject to philosophical debate regarding compatibility with cosmopolitanism.
Anthony D. Smith describes how intellectuals played a primary role in generating cultural perceptions of nationalism during the Age of Revolution. He posits challenges posed to traditional religion propelled thinkers to discover alternative principles and new mythology to legitimate human thought. Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term nationality in 1772 within his Treatise on the Origin of Language stressing common language importance. Herder attached exceptional importance to patriotism stating that one who lost patriotic spirit had lost himself and the whole world about him. Primordialism developed alongside nationalism during the Romantic era holding that nations have always existed though most scholars now reject this view. Perennialism accepts nations are modern phenomena but with long historical roots remaining subject to academic debate. Modernization theory currently stands as the most commonly accepted approach proposing nationalism emerged due to industrialization urbanization and mass education. Proponents describe nations as imagined communities where shared sentiment provides collective identity binding individuals together in political solidarity. Ethnosymbolism explains nationalism as product of symbols myths and traditions associated specifically with Anthony D. Smith's work. These frameworks attempt to explain why people identify strongly with specific groups despite lacking direct kinship ties across vast distances.
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded much of Europe between 1800 and 1806 establishing a template for mobilizing public opinion around popular sovereignty. His conquests stimulated demands for national unity among German and Italian states while spreading revolutionary ideas throughout the continent. Between 1830 and 1870 nationalism made great strides inspiring literature quickening scholarship and nurturing heroes across Europe. Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck achieved German unification through short wars against Denmark Austria and France thrilling pan-German nationalists. The new German Empire ran as force for balance after 1871 under his leadership. In Italy Giuseppe Garibaldi entered Naples in 1860 driving the Risorgimento movement that consolidated different states into Kingdom of Italy by 1861. Francesco Crispi later emulated Bismarck firing up Italian nationalism with aggressive foreign policy though his cause ultimately set back. Sicilian leaders fought to enlarge political base but policies proved ruinous for trade with France and colonial ambitions in East Africa. Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa on the 1st of March 1896 defining an unparalleled disaster for modern army. These conflicts demonstrated power both to unify and divide European societies while threatening multi-national empires like Ottoman and Habsburg.
In the 1880s European powers divided almost all of Africa leaving only Ethiopia and Liberia independent until World War II ended their rule. Colonial holdings became independent states during the 1950s and 1960s often through peaceful processes despite bitter bloody civil wars in places like Algeria and Kenya. Nationalistic organizations challenged traditional and colonial structures finally displacing them when European authorities exited across African territories. Leaders took control ruling for decades or until death while maintaining political educational religious social organizations. Kenneth Kaunda led nationalist rallies in colonial Northern Rhodesia pictured at a gathering in 1960 before becoming Zambia's first president. In Latin America upsurge in nationalism sparked revolutions costing Spain nearly all colonies located there between 1808 and 1826. Criollos born in New Spain wrestled for power against peninsulares born in Spain leading to independence movements supported by Britain and United States enforcing Monroe Doctrine. Sun Yat-sen launched Kuomintang party in China in defiance of decrepit Empire run by outsiders pledging self-determination for people. The May Fourth Movement in 1919 served as intellectual foundation for Chinese Communism emphasizing democracy progress science freedom against imperialism feudalism autocracy.
The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by Serb revolutionaries in Bosnia on the 28th of June 1914 ignited First World War dissolving Austria-Hungary into nation states. German nationalism expressed through Nazism advocated Aryan race residing various countries sometimes mixed with alien elements like Jews whom they rejected. Adolf Hitler became leader of Nazi Party promoting living space vast undertaking transplanting Aryans throughout Poland Eastern Europe Baltic nations western Russia Ukraine. Nazi goals focused advancing Aryan race modifying human race via eugenics eradicating deemed inferior beings trans-nationally across world achievable borders. Greek general Ioannis Metaxas led the 4th of August regime from 1936 to death in 1941 advocating Third Hellenic Civilization successor Ancient Greece Byzantine empire. This fascist dictatorship promoted traditions folk music classicism medievalism inspired Mussolini's Fascist Italy and Hitler's Germany. In Yugoslavia serious conflict arose after Revolutions of 1989 triggered collapse communism leaving people free choose long dormant conflicts rise creating sources serious conflict. Political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries causing individuals groups act beliefs causing death destruction escalating easily as groups fought survive especially after fall communism. Steven Berg felt root nationalist conflicts demand autonomy separate existence giving strong emotions leading group fighting survive.
Since 2010 Catalan nationalists have led renewed independence movement declaring Catalan independence opposed by Spanish nationalists at Madrid Unity Rally Mired by Fascist Salutes From Far-right Falange Party Members on the 8th of October 2017. The British populace unexpectedly voted withdraw United Kingdom European Union known Brexit in referendum held the 23rd of June 2016. Donald Trump ran populist nationalist platform Make America Great Again America First exemplifying campaign repudiation globalism staunchly nationalistic outlook winning unexpected victory election the 8th of November 2016. He openly proclaimed himself nationalist cheering crowd Texas rally the 22nd of October 2018 supporting re-electing Senator Ted Cruz once adversary equating nationalism patriotism saying proud country calling that nationalism. Vladimir Putin exploited nationalist sentiments consolidating power Russia annexation Crimea 2014 actions Ukraine. Hindu nationalism grew popularity Bharatiya Janata Party ruling India national level since 2014 under Narendra Modi elected Prime Minister promising economic prosperity ending corruption. Militant Buddhist nationalism rising Myanmar Thailand Sri Lanka while Nippon Kaigi organization developed nationalist influences Japanese government early twenty-first century advocating re-establish military power revisionist historical narratives denying events like Nanking Massacre.
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Common questions
When did the French revolutionary government declare the levée en masse?
The French revolutionary government declared a mass conscription known as the levée en masse in 1793. This decree called upon all French citizens to serve the Republic until enemies were driven from their territory.
Who originated the term nationality and when was it first used?
Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term nationality in 1772 within his Treatise on the Origin of Language. He stressed common language importance and attached exceptional importance to patriotism stating that one who lost patriotic spirit had lost himself and the whole world about him.
What happened to Ethiopia during European colonization of Africa?
European powers divided almost all of Africa leaving only Ethiopia and Liberia independent until World War II ended their rule. Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa on the 1st of March 1896 defining an unparalleled disaster for modern army.
On what date did the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand ignite the First World War?
The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by Serb revolutionaries in Bosnia occurred on the 28th of June 1914. This event ignited the First World War dissolving Austria-Hungary into nation states.
When did Catalan nationalists declare independence opposed by Spanish nationalists?
Catalan nationalists declared independence opposed by Spanish nationalists at Madrid Unity Rally Mired by Fascist Salutes From Far-right Falange Party Members on the 8th of October 2017. Since 2010 Catalan nationalists have led renewed independence movement.