Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent
Buddhism began its journey in the Indian subcontinent following the death of Gautama Buddha. The religion gained significant momentum during the 3rd century BCE under the Maurya Empire. King Ashoka provided royal endorsement that allowed Buddhism to spread across ancient India. This support enabled the faith to reach Central Asia and China. Urbanization and centralized states created a fertile environment for growth. The economy was growing, which helped fund new religious organizations. State support continued through various regional regimes throughout the first millennium BCE. The Kanva Dynasty included four Buddhist kings who maintained this tradition. Monastic organizations became the center of religious and intellectual life in India.
During the Gupta Empire from the 4th to 6th century, Hindu sects like Vaishnavism and Shaivism grew increasingly popular. Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state that shifted power dynamics. Mahayana Buddhism adopted more ritualistic practices as differences between the two religions blurred. Buddhist ideas were absorbed into Vedic schools while monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. Gupta kings did build Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara. They also established monastic universities including those at Nalanda. Records left by three Chinese visitors to India confirm these constructions existed. Despite royal patronage, the system began changing in ways that would eventually weaken Buddhist institutions. The religion started losing its distinctiveness during this period of religious development.
Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries documented a decline of the Buddhist sangha. Faxian, Xuanzang, Yijing, Hui-sheng, and Song Yun all spoke of destruction in northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. The Hun invasion from central Asia in the 6th century CE caused massive damage. Mihirakula ruled the northwestern region from 515 to 540 CE and was known for persecuting Buddhists. He ordered the expulsion of monks and destroyed many Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara. His attacks reached as far away as modern-day Prayagraj. Between 525 and 532 CE, Yashodharman and rulers of the Gupta Empire reversed Mihirakula's campaign. The religion recovered slowly from these invasions during the 7th century. Buddhism of Punjab and Sindh remained strong while other regions struggled with recovery efforts.
The regionalization of India after the end of the Gupta Empire led to loss of patronage and donations. A. L. Basham argued that the main cause was the rise of Hinduism which focused on worship of deities like Shiva and Vishnu. This new form became more popular among common people while Buddhism had become disconnected from public life. Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Bhakti and Tantra. These competed with each other and with numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism. New Indian dynasties arising after the 7th and 8th centuries tended to support Hinduism. Brahmins were willing and able to aid in local administration by providing councillors and administrators. They studied texts such as the Arthashastra and Manusmriti to develop practical statecraft. Buddhists could give very little practical advice in response to Brahminical suggestions. Johannes Bronkhorst noted that Buddhist texts often spoke ill of kings and royalty. Lars Fogelin argues that concentration of the sangha into large monastic complexes contributed to decline. The monks became largely divorced from day-to-day interaction with the laity except as landlords.
Buddhism's distinctiveness diminished with the rise of Hindu sects during medieval times. Devotional cults of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism likely seemed quite similar to laypeople. Developing Tantrism of both religions also appeared comparable to ordinary observers. Elements which medieval Hinduism adopted included vegetarianism and a critique of animal sacrifices. Strong tradition of monasticism founded by figures such as Shankara was incorporated. The Buddha himself was adapted into orthodox Hindu thought as an avatar of Vishnu. On the other end, Buddhism slowly became more Brahmanized initially through adoption of Sanskrit. This move brought numerous Brahmanical norms into the Sanskrit Buddhist culture. Some Buddhist texts even suggested the Buddha was a Brahmin who knew the Vedas. Eventually the caste system became widely accepted for all practical purposes by Indian Buddhists. A tendency developed to see Buddhism's past as having been dependent on Brahmanism. These changes took them far from ideas and practices they had adhered to during early centuries. They moved dangerously close to their much-detested rivals in terms of doctrine and practice.
The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent represented the first great iconoclastic invasion into the region. Arab conquerors invaded present-day Pakistan as early as the 8th century. From the 11th through 13th centuries, Turkic, Turkic-Mongolian and Mongolian forces overtook northern Indian plains. Persian traveler Al Biruni's memoirs suggest Buddhism had vanished from Ghazni and medieval Punjab region by early 11th century. By the end of the twelfth century, Buddhism had further disappeared with destruction of monasteries and stupas. The chronicler of Shahubuddin Ghori's forces records enthusiastically about attacks on monks and students. Major centers of Buddhism were located in north India along the direct path of armies. Buddhist university of Nalanda was mistaken for a fort because of its walled campus. Monks who had been slaughtered were mistaken for Brahmins according to Minhaj-i-Siraj. Odantapuri monastery was also conquered by these forces. Vikramashila was destroyed by forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. Many Buddhist monks fled to Nepal, Tibet, and South India to avoid consequences of war.
Fresh re-assessments of evidence from archaeology have disputed the view that Muslim invasions caused major decline. Archaeologist Giovanni Verardi argues that great monasteries from Sarnath to Vikramaśīla were not destroyed by Muslims but appropriated and transformed by Brahmans. Orthodox Brahmins gained power during Gahadavala and Sena dynasties in northern and eastern India. They accepted Muslim rule in exchange for extirpation of Buddhism and repression of social sectors in revolt. Archaeologist Federica Barba writes that Gahadavala Rajputs built large Hindu temples in traditional Buddhist sites like Sarnath. Evidence indicates Buddhists had been expelled from Sarnath during mid 12th century under Gahadavala rule. The site was already being converted to a large Shiva temple compound before Muslim invaders arrived. While some monasteries survived including Somapuri, Lalitagiri, Udayagiri, most large complexes became dependent on local authority patronage. When this patronage dissipated, they were abandoned by the sangha. The devastation of agriculture meant many laypersons could no longer support Buddhist monks who were easily identifiable and vulnerable.
In 1891 Sri Lankan activist Don David Hewavitarne visited India later known as Anagarika Dharmapala. His campaign led to formation of Maha Bodhi Society and recovery of Buddhist pilgrimage sites. American Theosophists Henry Steel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky cooperated with his efforts. In 1950s B.R. Ambedkar pioneered Dalit Buddhist movement for untouchables. On the 14th of October 1956 in Nagpur he converted to Buddhism along with 365,000 followers. Many other mass-conversion ceremonies followed throughout India. Marathi Buddhists are now the largest Buddhist community in India. In 1959 Tenzin Gyatso escaped from Tibet to India with numerous Tibetan refugees. They set up government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala which is often called Little Lhasa. S.N. Goenka founded Vipassana Research Institute promoting meditation in modern non-sectarian manner. Construction of Global Vipassana Pagoda completed on outskirts of Mumbai in November 2008. Total Buddhist population in Indian subcontinent excluding Sri Lanka and Nepal reached about 10 million by 2010. About 92.5% lived in India while 7.2% resided in Bangladesh.
Continue Browsing
Common questions
When did Buddhism decline in the Indian subcontinent?
Buddhism declined gradually and ended around the 13th or 14th century. Records indicate that by the end of the twelfth century, Buddhism had further disappeared with destruction of monasteries and stupas.
Who caused the decline of Buddhism in India during the medieval period?
Muslim conquests represented the first great iconoclastic invasion into the region from the 8th through 13th centuries. Turkic, Turkic-Mongolian, and Mongolian forces overtook northern Indian plains while rulers like Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed major centers such as Vikramashila around 1200.
What role did Hindu sects play in the disappearance of Buddhism?
Hindu sects like Vaishnavism and Shaivism grew increasingly popular during the Gupta Empire from the 4th to 6th century. Orthodox Brahmins gained power under Gahadavala and Sena dynasties and accepted Muslim rule in exchange for extirpation of Buddhism and repression of social sectors in revolt.
Which Buddhist universities were destroyed during the decline of Buddhism in India?
Major centers included Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramashila which was destroyed by forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. Archaeologist Giovanni Verardi argues that monasteries from Sarnath to Vikramaśīla were not destroyed by Muslims but appropriated and transformed by Brahmans.
When did B.R. Ambedkar convert to Buddhism in India?
On the 14th of October 1956 in Nagpur he converted to Buddhism along with 365,000 followers. This event marked the beginning of mass-conversion ceremonies throughout India led by the Dalit Buddhist movement.