Maurya Empire

• 1. Founding And Expansion

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  In 321 BCE, a young man named Chandragupta stood at the edge of the Punjab region. He had just witnessed Alexander the Great's army mutiny at the Beas River and retreat westward. The Macedonian king died in Babylon in 323 BCE, leaving his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms ruled by his generals. Greek governors in India were assassinated shortly after Alexander's death. This revolt was led by Chandragupta, who established an oppressive regime himself after taking the throne.

  Chandragupta organized an army from the people of the Punjab, described by some early translators as "robbers" but more accurately understood as mercenary soldiers or hunters. He recruited local military republics such as the Yaudheyas that had resisted Alexander's Empire. When Seleucus I Nicator crossed the Indus with an army to defend these territories, he was defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan. In 303-302 BCE, the two rulers concluded a dynastic marriage alliance. Seleucus transferred easternmost satrapies including Gandhara, Parapamisadae, and parts of Gedrosia to Chandragupta. Seleucus received 500 war elephants that would play a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.

• 2. Imperial Administration

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  Pataliputra served as the capital city, surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers according to Megasthenes' eyewitness account. The palace was chiefly constructed of timber and considered to exceed in splendour the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. Its gilded pillars were adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with ornamental trees.

  Ashoka's empire consisted of five parts divided into four provinces ruled by princes who served as governors. Provincial capitals included Tosali in the east, Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri in the south, and Taxila in the northwest. Each province had a kumara (prince) assisted by mahamatyas (great ministers) and council of ministers. A well-developed coin minting system produced silver and copper coins widely used for trade and commerce. Certain gold coins circulated alongside them.

  Municipal governance featured a city counsel made up of thirty commissioners divided into six committees. One board fixed wages and looked after provided goods while another arranged for foreign dignitaries and tourists. A third board maintained records and registrations, and a fourth handled manufactured goods and commodity sales. Trade regulation boards issued licenses and checked weights and measurements. Sales taxes were collected by yet another board. Cities like Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins.

• 3. The Kalinga War

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  In 261 BCE, Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and citizen militias. An estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Imperial Mauryan soldiers. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse.

  Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenistic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus II Theos), Tulamaya (Ptolemy II), Amtikini (Antigonos II), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander II of Epirus) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. These edicts locate their territory "600 yojanas away" corresponding to roughly 4,000 miles between India and Greece.

• 4. Ashoka's Reforms

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  Following the Buddha's message, Ashoka banned Brahminic Vedic animal sacrifices in his capital though he evidently lacked administrative control to stop them outside of it. Overall, Ashoka's edicts proclaim his compassion for animals, perhaps motivated by an environmental ethic alongside revenue or administrative goals. Consequently, today many environmentalists evoke Ashoka as an ancient Indian exemplar.

  The edicts state that many followed the emperor's example in giving up the slaughter of animals. One of them proudly states this commitment publicly. However, the edicts reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events since a 100 'panas' fine existed for poaching deer in imperial hunting preserves showing rule-breakers did exist. Legal restrictions conflicted with practices freely exercised by common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. Ashoka sent Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia while commissioning construction of monasteries and schools across the empire.

• 5. Architectural Legacy

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  The greatest monument of this period executed in Chandragupta Maurya's reign was the old palace at Paliputra located in modern Kumhrar in Patna. Excavations unearthed remains thought to be a group of several buildings with an immense pillared hall supported on high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows dividing the hall into smaller square bays. Eighty columns stood each about meters high according to Megasthenes' eyewitness account.

  Later fragments of stone pillars including one nearly complete indicate Ashoka constructed stone columns replacing earlier wooden ones. These had round tapering shafts and smooth polish resembling fine enamel. During the Ashokan period stonework reached such great perfection that even small fragments received high lustrous polish. This period marked beginning of Buddhist architecture with large domes bearing symbols of Buddha. Most important examples are located at Sanchi, Bodhgaya, Bharhut, and possibly Amaravati Stupa. More than 40 Ashoka pillars spread throughout Indian subcontinent often exquisitely decorated.

• 6. Hellenistic Contacts

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  An influential and large Greek population existed in northwest Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule possibly as remnants of Alexander's conquests in Indus Valley region. In Rock Edicts inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states Greeks within his dominion converted to Buddhism. Fragments of Edict 13 found in Greek while full Edict written both Greek and Aramaic discovered in Kandahar. It said to be written in excellent Classical Greek using sophisticated philosophical terms.

  Ashoka used word Eusebeia meaning Piety as Greek translation for ubiquitous Dharma of other edicts written in Prakrit. The Greeks in India even seem to have played active role in spreading Buddhism since some emissaries like Dharmaraksita described in Pali sources as leading Greek Yona Buddhist monks. Ashoka also encouraged development of herbal medicine for men and animals in their territories. These contacts demonstrate how diplomatic relations extended far beyond traditional boundaries into Central Asia and Mediterranean regions.

• 7. Dynastic Decline

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  Ashoka was followed for 50 years by succession of weaker emperors. He succeeded by Dasharatha Maurya who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend throne after him. Mahinda firstborn became Buddhist monk while Kunala blinded hence couldn't ascend throne. Tivala son of Karuvaki died even earlier than Ashoka. Little known about another son Jalauka.

  Empire lost many territories under Dasharatha later reconquered by Samprati Kunala's son. Post Samprati Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE Brihadratha Maurya killed by general Pushyamitra Shunga in military parade without any heir giving rise to Shunga Empire. Reasons advanced include succession weak emperors partition empire growing independence areas within empire top-heavy administration authority entirely hands few persons absence national consciousness pure scale empire making unwieldy invasion Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The fall left Khyber Pass unguarded triggering wave foreign invasion following establishment Indo-Greek Kingdom around 180 BCE.