Vaishnavism

• 1. Origins And Syncretism

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  An inscription carved into stone in 115 BCE tells the story of Heliodoros, an envoy from the Greco-Bactrian king Amtalikita. He declared himself a bhagavata devoted to Vasudeva on a pillar standing in modern Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. This artifact represents one of the earliest unambiguous images of the deity found by numismatic and sculptural evidence. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism remains unclear with inconsistent historical records. Scholars suggest it formed as a fusion of various regional non-Vedic religions with worship of Vishnu during the 7th to 4th century BCE. Popular non-Vedic theistic traditions like the Bhagavata cults of Vāsudeva-Krishna and Gopala-Krishna developed before being identified with the Vedic God Vishnu in early centuries CE. Dandekar argues that what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in Vedism but emerged from the merger of several popular theistic traditions after the decline of Brahmanism. Vaishnavism initially formed as Vasudevism around Vāsudeva, a deified leader of the Vrishnis who was one of the Vrishni heroes. Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated with Krishna, the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas. This merged deity became known as Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna due to the close relation between the tribes of the Vrishnis and the Yadavas. A subsequent merger occurred with the cult of Gopala-Krishna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras in the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic. These mergers positioned Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism then adopted the Rigvedic Vishnu as Supreme deity to appeal to orthodox elements. According to Klostermaier, Vaishnavism originates in the last centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. The cult of the heroic Vāsudeva was later amalgamated with Krishna, hero of the Yadavas, and still several centuries later with the divine child Bala Krishna of the Gopala traditions. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion. The term Bhagavata seems to have developed from the concept of the Vedic deity Bhaga and initially it seems to have been a monotheistic sect independent of the Brahmanical pantheon. The development of the Krishna-traditions was followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata canon thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment. The Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God. The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita, initially a Krishnaite scripture according to Friedhelm Hardy, was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text of Krishnaism. Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari, a northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and was absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa Narayana. Purusa Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna.

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• 2. Medieval Philosophical Schools

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  The Gupta kings beginning with Chandragupta II Vikramaditya who ruled from 375 to 413 CE were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. Following Huna invasions especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented ultimately collapsing completely. This collapse discredited Vaishnavism the religion it had been so ardently promoting. Newly arising regional powers in central and northern India such as the Aulikaras Maukharis Maitrakas Kalacuris or Vardhanas preferred adopting Saivism instead giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva and its ideology of power. Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir. Modern scholarship places Nimbarkacharya around the 7th century CE in this period. He propounded Radha-Krishna worship and his doctrine later came to be known as Dvaita-advaita. Vaishnavism in the 10th century started to employ Vedanta arguments possibly continuing an older tradition of Vishnu-oriented Vedanta predating Advaita Vedanta. Many early Vaishnava scholars including Nathamuni Yamunacharya and Ramanuja contested Adi Shankara's Advaita emphasizing devotion bhakti to Vishnu. The Sri Vaishnava acharya Ramanuja is credited with the conversion of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana originally called Bittideva from Jainism to Vaishnavism consolidating the faith in Karnataka. The Pallavas were also the first of various dynasties that offered land and wealth to the Venkatesvara temple at Tirumala which would soon become the most revered religious site of South India. The Sri Vaishnava sampradaya of Ramanuja would hold sway in the south. The Vadakalai denomination subscribed to Vedanta philosophy while the Tenkalai adhered to regional liturgies known as Prabandham. There are four major theological denominations established by medieval scholars: the Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, the Dvaita school of Madhvacharya, the Dvaitadvaita school of Nimbarkacharya, and the Shuddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya. Ramanuja challenged the then dominant Advaita Vedanta interpretation of the Upanishads and Vedas by formulating the Vishishtadvaita philosophy foundations for Sri Vaishnavism from Vedanta. Sadh Vaishnavism was founded by the thirteenth-century philosopher Madhvacharya. It is a movement in Hinduism that developed during its classical period around the beginning of the Common Era. Philosophically Sadh Vaishnavism is aligned with Dvaita Vedanta and regards Madhvacharya as its founder or reformer. The tradition traces its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancharatra texts. In Sadh Vaishnavism the creator is superior to the creation and hence moksha comes only from the grace of Vishnu but not from effort alone. Compared to other Vaishnava schools which emphasize only on Bhakti Sadh Vaishnavism regards Jnana Bhakti and Vairagya as necessary steps for moksha. So in Sadh Vaishnavism Jnana Yoga Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga are equally important in order to attain liberation. The Haridasa movement a bhakti movement originated from Karnataka is a sub-branch of Sadh Vaishnavism. Sadh Vaishnavism worships Vishnu as the highest Hindu deity and regards Madhva whom they consider to be an incarnation of Vishnu's son Vayu as an incarnate saviour. Madhvism regards Vayu as Vishnu's agent in this world and Hanuman Bhima and Madhvacharya to be his three incarnations. For this reason the roles of Hanuman in the Ramayana and Bhima in the Mahabharata are emphasized and Madhvacharya is particularly held in high esteem. Vayu is prominently shown by Madhva in countless texts. The most striking difference between Sadh Vaishnava and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of Vedas and their way of worship. While other Vaishnava groups deny the worship of Vedic deities such as Rudra Indra etc., Sadh Vaishnava worship all devatas including Lakshmi Brahma Vayu Saraswati Shiva Parvati Indra Subrahmanya and Ganesha as per Taratamya. In many of his works Madhvacharya also explained the Shiva Tattva the procedure to worship Panchamukha Shiva the Panchakshari Mantra and even clearly explained why everyone should worship Shiva. Many prominent saints and scholars of Sadh Vaishnavism such as Vyasatirtha composed Laghu Shiva Stuti Narayana Panditacharya composed Shiva Stuti and Satyadharma Tirtha wrote a commentary on Sri Rudram Namaka Chamaka in praise of Shiva. Indologist B. N. K. Sharma says these are positive proofs that Madhvas are not bigots opposed to the worship of Shiva. Sharma says Sadh Vaishnavism is more tolerant and accommodative of the worship of other gods such as Shiva Parvati Ganesha Subrahmanya and others of the Hindu pantheon compared to other Vaishnava traditions. This is the reason why Kanaka Dasa though under the influence of Tathacharya in his early life did not subscribe wholly to the dogmas of Sri Vaishnavism against the worship of Shiva etc., and later became the disciple of Vyasatirtha. The influence of Sadh Vaishnavism was most prominent on the Chaitanya school of Bengal Vaishnavism whose devotees later started the devotional movement on the worship of Krishna as International Society for Krishna Consciousness ISKCON known colloquially as the Hare Krishna Movement. It is stated that Chaitanya Mahaprabhu 1496, 1534 was a disciple of Isvara Puri who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha who was a disciple of Vyasatirtha 1469, 1539 of the Sadh Vaishnava Sampradaya of Madhvacharya. The Madhva school of thought also had a huge impact on Gujarat Vaishnava culture. The famous bhakti saint of Vallabha Sampradaya Swami Haridas was a direct disciple of Purandara Dasa of Madhva Vaishnavism. Hence Sadh Vaishnavism also have some influence on Vallabha's Vaishnavism as well.

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• 3. Bhakti Movement Expansion

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  The Bhakti movement originated among Vaishnavas of South India during the 7th-century CE and spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra towards the end of 13th-century. It gained wide acceptance by the fifteenth-century throughout India during an era of political uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts. The Alvars which literally means those immersed in God were twelve Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused bhakti devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing ecstasy and service. The Alvars appeared between the 5th century to the 10th century CE though the Vaishnava tradition regards the Alvars to have lived between 4200 BCE - 2700 BCE. The devotional writings of Alvars composed during the early medieval period of Tamil history are key texts in the bhakti movement. They praised the Divya Desams 108 abodes temples of the Vaishnava deities. The collection of their hymns is known as the Divya Prabandha. Their Bhakti-poems has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that opposed the ritual-oriented Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. U. V. Swaminatha Iyer a scholar of Tamil literature published the Paripatal Sangam period which contains seven poems in praise of Vishnu including references to Krishna and Balarama. Aiyangar notes an invasion of the south by the Mauryas in some of the older poems of the Sangam suggesting that opposition to northern conquest may have an element of religion with orthodox Brahmanism resisting the spread of Buddhism under Ashoka. Tamil literature of this period also records the settlement of Brahman colonies in the south and exhibit considerable Brahmanical influence. Secular literature also ascribes the tradition in the south to the 3rd century CE. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar states that the Vaishnava Alvars lived in the first half of the 12th century with their works flourishing about the time of the revival of Brahminism and Hinduism in the north and speculates that Vaishnavism might have spread to the south as early as the first century CE. The temples that the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna in the Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira Divya Prabandha 4000 divine verses. Later medieval period saw the growth of Vaishnava sampradayas denominations or communities under the influence of scholars such as Ramanuja Nimbarka Madhva and Vallabha. Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala Mamunigal Namdev Ramananda Sankaradeva Surdas Tulsidas Eknath Tyagaraja Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. Mirabai was also part of this movement. These scholars rejected Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta particularly Ramanuja in the 12th century and Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th century building their theology on the devotional tradition of the Alvars Sri Vaishnavas. In North and Eastern India Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements such as Ramananda in the 14th century Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century. Historically it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi. The Warkari sampradaya is a non-Brahamanical bhakti tradition which worships Vithoba also known as Vitthal who is regarded as a form of Krishna/Vishnu. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy standing arms akimbo on a brick sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai a regional name of Krishna's wife Rukmini. The Warkari-tradition is geographically associated with the Indian state of Maharashtra. The Warkari movement includes a duty-based approach towards life emphasizing moral behavior and strict avoidance of alcohol and tobacco the adoption of a strict lacto-vegetarian diet and fasting on Ekadashi day twice a month self-restraint brahmacharya during student life equality and humanity for all rejecting discrimination based on the caste system or wealth the reading of Hindu texts the recitation of the Haripath every day and the regular practice of bhajan and kirtan. The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on the eleventh ekadashi day of the lunar months Shayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik. The Warkari poet-saints are known for their devotional lyrics the abhang dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and Marathi versions of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. Notable saints and gurus of the Warkaris include Jñāneśvar Namdev Chokhamela Eknath and Tukaram all of whom are accorded the title of Sant. Though the origins of both his cult and his main temple are debated there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century. Various Indologists have proposed a prehistory for Vithoba worship where he was previously a hero stone a pastoral deity a manifestation of Shiva a Jain saint or even all of these at various times for various devotees.

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• 4. Scriptural Canon And Texts

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  Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas the Upanishads the Bhagavad Gita the Pancharatra Agama texts Naalayira Divya Prabhandham and the Bhagavata Purana. The Bhagavad Gita is an important scripture not only within Vaishnavism but also to other traditions of Hinduism. It is one of three important texts of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and has been central to all Vaishnava sampradayas. The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna and presents Bhakti Jnana and Karma yoga as alternate ways to spiritual liberation with the choice left to the individual. The text discusses dharma and its pursuit as duty without craving for fruits of one's actions as a form of spiritual path to liberation. The text state Clooney and Stewart succinctly summarises the foundations of Vaishnava theology that the entire universe exists within Vishnu and all aspects of life and living is not only a divine order but divinity itself. The Bhagavad Gita is a summary of the classical Upanishads and Vedic philosophy and closely associated with the Bhagavata and related traditions of Vaishnavism. The text has been commented upon and integrated into diverse Vaishnava denominations such as by the medieval era Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta school and Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta school as well as 20th century Vaishnava movements such as the Hare Krishna movement by His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Charlotte Vaudeville has said it is the real Bible of Krsnaism. The Pancaratra Samhitas literally five nights is a genre of texts where Vishnu is presented as Narayana and Vasudeva and this genre of Vaishnava texts is also known as the Vaishnava Agamas. Its doctrines are found embedded in the stories within the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata. Narayana is presented as the ultimate unchanging truth and reality Brahman who pervades the entirety of the universe and is asserted to be the preceptor of all religions. The Pancaratra texts present the Vyuhas theory of avatars to explain how the absolute reality Brahman manifests into material form of ever changing reality Vishnu avatar. Vasudeva state the Pancaratra texts goes through a series of emanations where new avatars of him appear. This theory of avatar formation syncretically integrates the theories of evolution of matter and life developed by the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. These texts also present cosmology methods of worship tantra Yoga and principles behind the design and building of Vaishnava temples Mandira nirmana. These texts have guided religiosity and temple ceremonies in many Vaishnava communities particularly in South India. The Pancaratra Samhitas are tantric in emphasis and at the foundation of tantric Vaishnava traditions such as the Sri Vaishnava tradition. They complement and compete with the vedic Vaishnava traditions such as the Bhagavata tradition which emphasize the more ancient Vedic texts ritual grammar and procedures. While the practices vary the philosophy of Pancaratra is primarily derived from the Upanishads its ideas synthesise Vedic concepts and incorporate Vedic teachings. The three most studied texts of this genre of Vaishnava religious texts are Paushkara Samhita Sattvata Samhita and Jayakhya Samhita. Reprinted in The other important Pancaratra texts include the Lakshmi Tantra and Ahirbudhnya Samhita. Scholars place the start of this genre of texts to about the 7th or 8th century CE and later. The Mahabharata and Ramayana present Vaishnava philosophy and culture embedded in legends and dialogues. The epics are considered the fifth Veda in Hindu culture. The Ramayana describes the story of Rama an avatara of Vishnu and is taken as a history of the ideal king based on the principles of dharma morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita his brother Lakshman with his devotee and follower Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behavior. Ravana the evil king and villain of the epic is presented as an epitome of adharma playing the opposite role of how not to behave. The Mahabharata is centred around Krishna presents him as the avatar of transcendental supreme being. The epic details the story of a war between good and evil each side represented by two families of cousins with wealth and power one depicted as driven by virtues and values while other by vice and deception with Krishna playing pivotal role in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is the Bhagavad Gita. The Puranas are an important source of entertaining narratives and histories states Mahony that are embedded with philosophical theological and mystical modes of experience and expression as well as reflective moral and soteriological instructions. More broadly the Puranic literature is encyclopedic These are the true encyclopedic Puranas in which detached chapters or sections dealing with any imaginable subject follow one another without connection or transition and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony cosmology genealogies of gods goddesses kings heroes sages and demigods folk tales travel guides and pilgrimages temples medicine astronomy grammar mineralogy humor love stories as well as theology and philosophy. The Puranas were a living genre of texts because they were routinely revised their content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over centuries. Of the 18 Mahapuranas great Puranas many have titles based on one of the avatars of Vishnu. However quite many of these are actually in large part Shiva-related Puranas likely because these texts were revised over their history. Some were revised into Vaishnava treatises such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana which originated as a Puranic text dedicated to the Surya Sun god. Textual cross referencing evidence suggests that in or after 15th/16th century CE it went through a series of major revisions and almost all extant manuscripts of Brahma Vaivarta Purana are now Vaishnava Krishna bhakti oriented. Of the extant manuscripts the main Vaishnava Puranas are Bhagavata Purana Vishnu Purana Nāradeya Purana Garuda Purana Vayu Purana and Varaha Purana. The Brahmanda Purana is notable for the Adhyatma-ramayana a Rama-focussed embedded text in it which philosophically attempts to synthesize Bhakti in god Rama with Shaktism and Advaita Vedanta Among the texts considered to be connected with the Brahmanda the Adhyatma-ramayana is undoubtedly the most important one. While an avatar of Vishnu is the main focus of the Puranas of Vaishnavism these texts also include chapters that revere Shiva Shakti goddess power Brahma and a pantheon of Hindu deities. Barbara Holdrege states that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak of or pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas. The philosophy and teachings of the Vaishnava Puranas are bhakti oriented often Krishna but Rama features in some but they show an absence of a narrow sectarian spirit. To its bhakti ideas these texts show a synthesis of Samkhya Yoga and Advaita Vedanta ideas. In Gaudiya Vaishnava Vallabha Sampradaya and Nimbarka sampradaya Krishna is believed to be a transcendent Supreme Being and source of all avatars in the Bhagavata Purana. The text describes modes of loving devotion to Krishna wherein his devotees constantly think about him feel grief and longing when Krishna is called away on a heroic mission.

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• 5. Global Modern Diaspora

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  During the 20th century Vaishnavism spread from India and is now practised in many places around the globe including North America Europe Africa Russia and South America. A pioneer of Vaishnava mission to the West was sannyasi Baba Premananda Bharati 1858, 1914 the author of the first full-length treatment of Bengali Vaishnavism in English Sree Krishna, the Lord of Love. He founded the Krishna Samaj society in New York City in 1902 and a temple in Los Angeles. The global status of Vaishnavism is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966. Prabhupada - He Built a House written by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami published by Bhaktivedanta Book Trust in 1983 documents this expansion. After its decline in the 18-19th century Gaudiya Vaishnavism was revived in the beginning of the 20th century due to the efforts of Bhaktivinoda Thakur. His son Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura founded sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India Burma and Europe. Thakura's disciple Srila Prabhupada went to the west and spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ISKCON. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database WRD hosted at Boston University's Institute on Culture Religion and World Affairs CURA Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect constituting about 399 million Hindus. Klaus Klostermaier and other scholars estimate Vaishnava to be the largest Hindu denomination Quote: Klostermaier 1998 p. 196 Vaishnava devotees of the deity Vishnu and the largest numerically part of mainstream Hinduism which is divided up into several sects. The denominations of Hinduism states Julius Lipner are unlike those found in major religions of the world because Hindu denominations are fuzzy individuals revere gods and goddesses polycentrically with many Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri Lakshmi Shiva Parvati and others reverentially on festivals and other occasions. Similarly Shaiva Shakta and Smarta Hindus revere Vishnu. Large Vaishnava communities exist throughout India. The Manipuri Vaishnava is a regional variant of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a culture-forming role among the Meitei people in the north-eastern Indian state of Manipur. There after a short period of Ramaism penetration Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread in the early 18th century especially from beginning its second quarter. Raja Gharib Nawaz Pamheiba was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition. Most devotee ruler and propagandist of Gaudiya Vaishnavism under the influence of Natottama Thakura's disciples was raja Bhagyachandra who has visited the holy for the Chaytanyaits Nabadwip. The Swaminarayan Sampradaya was founded in 1801 in Gujarat by Sahajanand Swami from Uttar Pradesh who is worshipped as Swaminarayan the supreme manifestation of God by his followers. The first temple built in Ahmedabad in 1822. The Pranami Sampradaya Pranami Panth emerged in the 17th century in Gujarat based on the Radha-Krishna-focussed syncretic Hindu-Islamic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor Mahamati Prannath. The Ekasarana Dharma was propagated by Srimanta Sankardev in the Assam region of India. It considers Krishna as the only God. Satras are institutional centers associated with the Ekasarana dharma. The Radha-vallabha Sampradaya founded by the Mathura bhakti poet-saint Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu in the 16th century occupies a unique place among other traditions. In its theology Radha is worshiped as the supreme deity and Krishna is in a subordinate position.

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