Divination
A man in Rhumsiki, Cameroon, attempts to tell the future by interpreting changes in position of various objects caused by a freshwater crab through the practice called nggàm. This act illustrates divination as an attempt to gain insight into a question or situation via magic ritual or practice. Throughout history, diviners have provided answers by reading signs, events, or omens. They often receive insight through supernatural agencies such as spirits, gods, god-like-beings, or the will of the universe. Some practices include astrology, Tarot card reading, rune casting, tea-leaf reading, Ouija boards, automatic writing, water scrying, numerology, and pendulum divination. If a distinction is made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element. It often contains a social character usually found within a religious context. Fortune-telling serves as a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular methods vary significantly by culture and religion. In its functional relation to magic, divination plays a preliminary and investigative role. The diagnosis achieved through divination relates logically to manipulative, protective, or alleviative functions of magic rituals. One finds the cause of an ailment or potential danger in divination. In magic one subsequently acts upon this knowledge.
The eternal fire at Nymphaion in southern Illyria functioned as an oracle with peculiar physical properties known to ancient Greek and Roman authors. The Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis gained fame when Alexander the Great visited it after conquering Egypt from Persia in 332 BC. Both oracles and seers practiced divination in ancient Greece. Oracles served as conduits for gods on earth where prophecies were understood as the will of gods verbatim. High demand for consultations meant they were not the main source of divination for ancient Greeks. That role fell to seers who interpreted signs provided by gods rather than direct contact. Seers used many methods including extispicy and ornithomancy to explicate divine will. They were more numerous than oracles and did not keep limited schedules. This made them highly valued by all Greeks beyond those able to travel to distant sites like Delphi. Only direct yes-or-no questions could be answered by seers. Oracles could answer generalized questions while seers often performed several sacrifices for consistent answers. During battle generals asked seers at campgrounds called hiera and at battlefields called sphagia. The hiera entailed slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for generic questions. The sphagia involved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and noting blood flow. Neither force would advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens.
Divination has long attracted criticism from skeptics and philosophers throughout history. In the modern era it is dismissed by scientific community as superstitious because experiments do not support predictive reliability. Cicero attacked divination in De Divinatione during the 1st century BCE. Sextus Empiricus wrote Against the Astrologers in the 2nd century CE. Lucian devoted an essay to Alexander the false prophet between 125 and after 180 AD. Some biblical practices such as Urim and Thummim, casting lots, and prayer are considered forms of divination. Trevan G. Hatch disputes comparisons because divination did not consult one true God. Uri Gabbay states that divination was associated with sacrificial rituals in ancient Near East including Mesopotamia and Israel. Extispicy was common where diviners prayed before vivisecting sacrificial animals. Their abdominal organs revealed divine messages aligning with cardiocentric views of mind. Christian emperors viewed divination as pagan practice during ancient Rome. Apostle Paul disapproved of clairvoyant slave girl encounter in Acts 16:16-19. The Quinisext Council passed canons in 692 to eliminate pagan and divination practices. Capital punishment was used on those predicting future under constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 in Electorate of Saxony.
Astrology known as ilm ahkam al-nujum is most widespread divinatory science within Islam. It studies how celestial entities apply to daily lives of people on earth. People from all socioeconomic levels sought advice of astrologers for important decisions. Astronomy became distinct science by intellectuals who disagreed with former though distinction may not have been made in daily practice. Astrologers trained as scientists interpreted celestial forces ruling sub-lunar regions. They predicted lunar phases, droughts, times of prayer, and foundation of cities. Courtly sanction and elite patronage benefited Muslim rulers' intellectual statures. Science of sand or ilm al-raml translates as geomancy based on interpretation of figures traced on sand. Core principle that meaning derives from unique occupied position identical to astrology. Geomancy used deduction and computation to uncover significant prophecies unlike omens which read visible random events. It relied almost exclusively on text specifically Qur'an carrying table for guidance. One example includes Qur'an from Gwalior India containing instructions to use text as divinatory tool. Practice culminated in appearance of illustrated Books of Omens Falnama in early 16th century embodying apocalyptic fears as millennium approached. Dream interpretation called oneiromancy more specific to Islam due to Qur'an emphasis on predictive dreams of Abraham Yusuf and Muhammad. Incoherent dreams differed from sound dreams which were part of prophecy or heavenly messages.
Divination was central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life where many Aztec gods described as diviners closely associated with sorcery. Tezcatlipoca served as patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic. His name means smoking mirror referencing device used for divinatory scrying. Mayan Popol Vuh describes creator gods Xmucane and Xpiacoc performing divinatory hand casting during creation of people. Aztec Codex Borbonicus shows original human couple Oxomoco and Cipactonal engaged in divining with kernels of maize. Primordial pair associated with ritual calendar considered first diviners by Aztecs. Every civilization developing in pre-Columbian Mexico practiced divination daily both public and private. Scrying through reflective water surfaces mirrors or casting lots among most widespread forms. Visions derived from hallucinogens another important form still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico. Common hallucinogenic plants include morning glory jimson weed and peyote. These substances facilitated visions integral to their spiritual practices across centuries.
Theyyam process invites Hindu god or goddess to use devotee body as medium answering other devotees questions. Same called arulvaak in Tamil while Buta Kola known in Karnataka regions around Mangalore. In Nepal it is known as Devta ka dhaamee or jhaakri. Dalai Lama consults Nechung Oracle during new year festivities of Losar according to centuries-old custom. Japan retains history of traditional methods like onmyodo though contemporary uranai derives from outside sources. Methods include Western Chinese astrology geomancy feng shui tarot cards I Ching divination physiognomy reading body traits. Futomani Shinto tradition divines from shoulder blade bone sacred deer. Personality typing prevalent since 1980s revealing glimpses individual destiny productive inhibiting traits future parenting techniques marriage compatibility. Chinese zodiac signs based birth year cycles combined celestial types planets Saturn Venus Mars Jupiter Mercury Uranus. Names bearing certain vowel sounds share common characteristics under name classification. Blood type popular form divination physiology determining personality traits. Body reading ninsou determines traits based measurements face eye size pupil shape mouth shape eyebrow shape. Approximately 144 women's magazines target early-to-mid twenties featuring highest concentration assessment guides. Japanese tarot cards created professional artists advertisers fans accumulating over 1500 decks. Images come manga anime Hello Kitty historical figures Himiko 170-248CE court wizard Abe no Seimei 921-1005CE.
Divination widespread throughout Africa central tenet Serer religion Senegal only initiated Saltigues divine future. These hereditary rain priests role both religious and medicinal. Saint Augustine of Hippo affirmed demons predict what they do in future possessing divinatory power deriving greater acuity senses aerial bodies experience accumulated long lives. They interpret divine signs natural world humans unable grasp foretell events immediate not immediate. Demons cause illnesses fantastic visions sleeping waking state accuracy predictions clashes evil deceptive nature God higher plans known holy angels divert override signs caught demons natural world. In Islam science letters ilm al-huruf foundational principle God created world speech began concept language Arabic expression essence signifies. Believer understanding remained obedient uncover essence divine truth objects inscribed Arabic amulets talismans through study letters Qur'an alphanumeric computations. Practitioners skilled apply individual dream general precedent appraising singular circumstances. West African countries diviners religious leaders healers interchangeable Islam closely related esoteric practices responsible regional spread Islam. Scholars learned esoteric sciences joined local non-Islamic aristocratic courts aligning divination amulets proof power Islamic religion. Vigorous debate exists whether practices permissible under Islam some scholars like Abu-Hamid al Ghazili d 1111 object similarity pagan practices invoking spiritual entities not God.
Common questions
What is divination and how does it function as a ritual practice?
Divination functions as an attempt to gain insight into a question or situation via magic ritual or practice. It often contains a social character usually found within a religious context where diviners read signs, events, or omens through supernatural agencies such as spirits, gods, god-like-beings, or the will of the universe.
How did ancient Greek seers differ from oracles in their methods of divination?
Oracles served as conduits for gods on earth where prophecies were understood as the will of gods verbatim while seers interpreted signs provided by gods rather than direct contact. Seers used many methods including extispicy and ornithomancy to explicate divine will and performed sacrifices at hiera and sphagia during battle to reveal appropriate omens before advancing.
Which historical figures criticized divination and what arguments did they present?
Cicero attacked divination in De Divinatione during the 1st century BCE while Sextus Empiricus wrote Against the Astrologers in the 2nd century CE. Lucian devoted an essay to Alexander the false prophet between 125 and after 180 AD and modern scientific community dismisses it as superstitious because experiments do not support predictive reliability.
What are the primary forms of Islamic divination and how do they interpret celestial forces?
Astrology known as ilm ahkam al-nujum is most widespread divinatory science within Islam that studies how celestial entities apply to daily lives of people on earth. Science of sand or ilm al-raml translates as geomancy based on interpretation of figures traced on sand using deduction and computation to uncover significant prophecies unlike omens which read visible random events.
How was divination practiced in ancient Mesoamerica and what substances were used for visions?
Divination was central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life where Aztec gods described as diviners closely associated with sorcery and Tezcatlipoca served as patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic. Visions derived from hallucinogens another important form still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico including morning glory jimson weed and peyote.