Valentinian dynasty
Gratianus Funarius stood at the head of a family that would shape the Roman Empire for nearly a century. He hailed from Cibalae, now Vinkovci in Croatia, within the province of Pannonia Secunda along the Sava River. His son Valentinian was born there in 321 and rose through the ranks of the protectores, eventually becoming tribunus in 357. The younger brother Valens followed a similar military path, also born at Cibalae in 328. In early February 364, the army elected Flavius Valentinianus as emperor after the death of Jovian. He arrived in Nicaea on the 25th of February 364 to be acclaimed augustus by his troops. To prevent instability, he elevated his brother Valens to co-augustus on the 28th of March 364. This division split the empire along linguistic lines, with Latin in the west and Greek in the east. The two brothers divided administrative and military structures so that recruitment became increasingly regionalized. They never fully reunited the halves again.
Mediolanum, modern Milan, replaced Rome as the primary seat of power for western emperors during this era. Trier served as another key residence before Honorius moved the court to Ravenna in 402. Local government operated under a three-tier system where provinces grouped into dioceses governed by vicarrii, which then formed larger praetorian prefectures. The Notitia Dignitatum listed all administrative positions including six comites responsible for regions like Africa and Britain. Court officials known as palatini acted between the imperial court and provincial governors. Scholae notariorum were clerks who drafted documents while agentes in rebus handled business affairs under the magister officiorum. Three sacred book chests managed requests, correspondence, and petitions at the imperial court. These bureaucratic layers allowed emperors to govern from frontier cities rather than the historic capital of Rome. Power concentrated in Mediolanum and later Ravenna while Constantinople dominated eastern administration.
Ambrose became bishop of Milan in 374 after serving as consularis of Liguria-Aemilia. He arrived with Roman soldiers to suppress sectarian violence between Nicene and Arian Christians in the city. Valentinian I remained largely indifferent to ecclesiastical conflicts despite being an orthodox Nicene Christian. His second wife Justina was a committed homoian adherent of Arianism originating from Pannonia. Valens aggressively promoted homoian theology exiling Athanasius shortly after his accession in 364. Gratian refused the robe of pontifex maximus from senators in 382 according to Zosimus though some doubt this account. He ordered removal of the Altar of Victory from the Senate's Curia Julia in winter 383/384. State endowments for pagan cults were cancelled and vestal virgins lost their stipends. Ambrose threatened Theodosius with excommunication following the massacre of Salonica in 390 until public repentance occurred. This established precedent that man must serve God first before any emperor.
In January 365 Alamanni crossed the Rhine into Roman Germania overwhelming defenses after Ursatius offered them inferior gifts. Jovinus defeated them at Scarpona and Catalauni forcing retreat but they returned later. King Vithicabius was murdered during a coup allowing Valentinian and Gratian to cross the Moenus river destroying territories. Quadi king Gabinus died during negotiations in 374 leading to further conflict across the Danube. Sarmatians made common cause inflicting heavy losses on Pannonica and Moesiaca legions before suing for peace. Goths petitioned Valens in early 376 seeking protection from Huns pushing refugees toward Dniester banks. Estimates suggest between 90,000 and 200,000 crossed into Thrace outnumbering stationed troops. Corrupt official Lupicinus seized chieftains Fritigern and Alavivus triggering full-scale attack near Marcianopolis resulting in defeat. Battle of Adrianople on the 9th of August 378 killed Valens along with two-thirds of his forces estimated at fifteen to thirty thousand soldiers dying that day.
Procopius appeared in Constantinople on the 1st of November 365 while Valentinian traveled toward Lutetia unable to respond immediately due to Alamanni threats. He installed himself in the imperial palace on the 28th of September claiming Julian's legacy using princess Constantia as hostage. Valens dispatched Jovii and Victores legions but Procopius won over generals including Gomoarius and Agilo who defected back to him later. At Thyatira around April 366 these commanders switched sides again leading men to Valens who ordered all beheaded. Magnus Maximus proclaimed augustus by British troops in spring 383 crossing channel encamping near Lutetia. Gratian fled toward Alps after Merobaudes defected then pursued across Rhone at Lugdunum where executed on the 23rd of August 383 aged twenty-four. Eugenius acclaimed augustus at Lugdunum on the 22nd of August 394 following Arbogast's request despite non-Roman background. Theodosius defeated him at Battle of Frigidus on the 6th of September 394 executing him at Aquileia on the 28th of August 388.
Valentinian II died at Vienna Gaul on the 15th of May 392 either by suicide or plot involving Arbogast buried next half-brother Gratian in Mediolanum late August early September 392. Theodosius became sole adult emperor ruling both halves until his death in Mediolanum on the 17th of January 395. His sons Arcadius and Honorius ruled east and west respectively as junior emperors aged fifteen and eight years old under guardians' control. Stilicho Vandal supreme commander allied himself marrying Serena adopted niece claiming parens role rejected by eastern court. He strengthened position marrying daughters Maria and Thermantia to Honorius accelerating barbarization western army massive settling Roman lands Germanic tribes Visigoths Burgundians Britain abandoned Italy increasingly vulnerable infiltration barbarian forces contracted resembling government Italy rather empire accommodation preferred foreign policy over confrontation Constantinople enjoyed relative peace Persian neighbors remaining vulnerable western front Thrace Macedonia Alaric I forces.
Valentinian III last emperor dynasty died marking end of dynasties western empire in 455. Thirty-year gap existed where Theodosian house ruled while Valentinian line lay dormant before restoration. Rome sacked 410 during interregnum foreshadowed eventual dissolution western empire late fifth century. Empire struggled against external migratory tribes internal pretenders frequent civil war crumbling state. Western empire replaced European kingdoms mediaeval Islamic states emerged series events led foundations Byzantine Empire east. Dynasty labeled Pannonian based family origin Pannonia Secunda northern Balkans Hungarian historian Andreas Alföldi dubbed them Pannonian emperors. Marriages imperial women raised concerns possibly leading raising pretenders throne Gratian's half-sisters took vow become dedicated virgins era women empresses emperor consorts rose unprecedented power successive appointment child emperors radically changing traditional image men deeds.
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Common questions
Who founded the Valentinian dynasty and where was he born?
Flavius Valentinianus founded the Valentinian dynasty and was born in Cibalae, now Vinkovci in Croatia. He rose through the ranks of the protectores to become tribunus in 357 before being elected emperor by the army.
When did Valens become co-augustus with his brother Valentinian I?
Valens became co-augustus on the 28th of March 364 after his brother arrived in Nicaea on the 25th of February 364. This division split the empire along linguistic lines with Latin in the west and Greek in the east.
What happened during the Battle of Adrianople on the 9th of August 378?
The Battle of Adrianople killed Emperor Valens along with two-thirds of his forces estimated at fifteen to thirty thousand soldiers dying that day. Corrupt official Lupicinus had seized chieftains Fritigern and Alavivus triggering a full-scale attack near Marcianopolis.
How did Ambrose influence church policy under the Valentinian dynasty?
Ambrose became bishop of Milan in 374 and threatened Theodosius with excommunication following the massacre of Salonica in 390 until public repentance occurred. He established the precedent that man must serve God first before any emperor.
Who was the last emperor of the Valentinian dynasty and when did he die?
Valentinian III was the last emperor of the Valentinian dynasty and died in 455 marking the end of the western empire. A thirty-year gap existed where the Theodosian house ruled while the Valentinian line lay dormant before restoration.