Easter
The modern English term Easter derives from an Old English word that usually appears in the form Eostre, Ostara, or Estera. In the 8th century AD, Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar Bede recorded in his The Reckoning of Time that this name referred to a month corresponding to April. He stated that this month was once called after a goddess named Eostre, in whose honor feasts were celebrated during that time. This linguistic root stands apart from the Greek and Latin terms used by most other Christian traditions. The word Pascha comes from Aramaic paskha, which is cognate to the Hebrew pesach. As early as 50 AD, Paul the Apostle applied this term to Christ while writing from Ephesus to Christians in Corinth. Most languages use names derived from the Greek and Latin Pascha rather than the Germanic Eostre. The Jewish festival known as Passover commemorates the Exodus from slavery in Egypt. Early Christians linked the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus to the week of Passover through the Last Supper.
Easter celebrates the supernatural resurrection of Jesus from the dead, which remains one of the chief tenets of the Christian faith. Paul writes that for those who trust in Jesus's death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory. The First Epistle of Peter declares that God has given believers a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Christian theology holds that followers of Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so they may walk in a new way of life. They receive eternal salvation and can hope to be physically resurrected to dwell with him in the Kingdom of Heaven. Easter links directly to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper. According to the three Synoptic Gospels, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning during his final meal with disciples. He identified the bread and cup of wine as his body and blood, soon to be sacrificed and shed. The Apostle Paul states in his First Epistle to the Corinthians that Christ is our Passover lamb who has been sacrificed. This refers to the requirement in Jewish law that Jews eliminate all leavening from their homes before Passover. The allegory presents Jesus as the Passover lamb whose sacrifice redeems humanity.
Direct evidence for a fully formed Christian festival of Pascha begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis. This text characterizes the celebration as a well-established practice by that time. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that celebrating the holiday was a practice of the disciples. The Quartodeciman controversy arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated. The term Quartodeciman refers to the practice of ending the Lenten fast on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar. According to church historian Eusebius, Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, debated this question with Anicetus, bishop of Rome. The Roman province of Asia practiced Quartodecimanism while Roman and Alexandrian churches continued fasting until Sunday following Unleavened Bread. Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. A number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, ruling in support of Easter on Sunday. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others who reminded him of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus.
The settlement of the controversy about the Paschal season caused by the Quartodeciman practice is listed as one of two reasons emperor Constantine convened the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. Letters from individuals present at the council mention a decision prohibiting Quartodecimanism and requiring all Christians adopt a common method to independently determine Paschal observance. This method followed the churches of Rome and Alexandria since Egypt possessed an ancient science for computation. Dionysius Exiguus and others later maintained that bishops assembled at Nicaea had promulgated celebrating Easter on the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the vernal equinox. They adopted the use of the 19-year lunar cycle known as the Metonic cycle to determine the date. Subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition regarding the specific rules, but evidence suggests the church of Alexandria implemented the equinox rule before 325. The Alexandrian system became normative following the council, though it was not immediately adopted throughout Christian Europe. Rome retired its earlier 8-year cycle in favor of Augustalis' 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle which it used until 457. It then switched to Victorius of Aquitaine's adaptation of the Alexandrian system. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during Charlemagne's reign when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method.
Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles where the lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months generally alternating with an embolismic month added periodically. In each solar year from January 1 to December 31 inclusive, the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling between March 8 and April 5 inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year. Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month or the Sunday after the 14th day of that lunar month. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon although this may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days. Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls between March 8 and April 5 inclusive, the paschal full moon must fall between March 22 and April 18 inclusive. The Gregorian calculation was based on a method devised by Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius for adjusting the epacts of the Moon. This system has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries celebrating national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar New Style Act 1750. Eastern Orthodox Christians use the same rule but base their March 21 according to the Julian calendar.
In most branches of Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of penitence beginning on Ash Wednesday and lasting 40 days not counting Sundays. The week before Easter known as Holy Week commemorates the final week of Jesus's life on earth. Palm Sunday marks Jesus's entry in Jerusalem while Spy Wednesday mourns his betrayal. The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum. Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday with a service called the Easter Vigil. In Eastern Christianity, spiritual preparation begins with Great Lent which starts on Clean Monday and lasts 40 continuous days including Sundays. Great Lent ends on Lazarus Saturday when Vespers officially brings the season to a close though fasting continues through the following week. The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office timed so it ends just before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy. The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints is known as the Pentecostarion or 50 days.
Easter traditions include sunrise services or late-night vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, flowering the cross, and wearing Easter bonnets by women. Decoration and communal breaking of Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb. The Easter lily traditionally decorates church chancel areas during Eastertide. Traditional Easter foods vary significantly by region and culture. In Nordic countries, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday are public holidays while Maundy Thursday is also a holiday for most workers in Denmark, Iceland, and Norway. Schools close between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday. A 2014 poll found that six out of ten Norwegians travel during Easter often to countryside cottages. In Italy both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays resulting in what locals call first and second Easter Sundays. Greece observes Good Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday as traditional public holidays with employees receiving state bonuses. Commonwealth nations rarely make Easter Sunday a public holiday though Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays in many places. The United States does not designate Easter as a federal holiday but holds parades in many cities involving festive strolling processions.
The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth that became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection in Christianity. The custom originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia who stained eggs red in memory of Christ's blood shed at his crucifixion. For Christians, the Easter egg serves as a symbol of the empty tomb. The oldest tradition uses dyed chicken eggs while Eastern Orthodox churches bless eggs in families' baskets together with other foods forbidden during Great Lent. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate brilliantly colored eggs. The House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916. Modern Western customs substitute decorated chocolate or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans. British chocolate company Cadbury manufactured its first Easter egg in 1875 and sponsors annual egg hunts in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom. The President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children. The Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic gift-giving character originating in Germany that fills children's baskets with treats.
Common questions
What is the origin of the English word Easter?
The modern English term Easter derives from an Old English word that usually appears in the form Eostre, Ostara, or Estera. In the 8th century AD, Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar Bede recorded in his The Reckoning of Time that this name referred to a month corresponding to April.
When did the Christian festival of Pascha first appear as evidence?
Direct evidence for a fully formed Christian festival of Pascha begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis.
Why was the First Council of Nicaea convened in 325 AD regarding Easter?
The settlement of the controversy about the Paschal season caused by the Quartodeciman practice is listed as one of two reasons emperor Constantine convened the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. Letters from individuals present at the council mention a decision prohibiting Quartodecimanism and requiring all Christians adopt a common method to independently determine Paschal observance.
How is the date of Easter determined according to lunisolar cycles?
Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month or the Sunday after the 14th day of that lunar month. Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls between March 8 and April 5 inclusive, the paschal full moon must fall between March 22 and April 18 inclusive.
What are the traditional symbols associated with Easter eggs?
The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth that became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection in Christianity. The custom originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia who stained eggs red in memory of Christ's blood shed at his crucifixion.