Alexandria

• 1. Founding And Ancient Origins

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  Alexander the Great arrived at the western edge of the Nile River Delta in April 331 BC to establish a new city. He chose the site of an ancient Egyptian fishing village named Rhacotis, which had existed since the 13th century BC. The Greek conqueror envisioned a large Hellenistic center that would link Greece with the rich Nile valley. His architect Dinocrates of Rhodes designed the city using a Hippodamian grid plan with parallel streets and subterranean canals. A causeway connected the mainland to the nearby island of Pharos, creating two great natural harbors. After Alexander left Egypt months later, his viceroy Cleomenes continued the expansion efforts. Ptolemy I Soter moved the capital from Memphis to Alexandria in 305 BC after declaring himself Pharaoh. The city grew rapidly to become larger than Carthage within less than a generation.

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• 2. Classical Golden Age And Decline

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  The Library of Alexandria became the largest collection of knowledge in the ancient world during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. This institution faced destruction during Caesar's siege of the city in 47 BC. The Lighthouse of Alexandria stood on the eastern point of Pharos Island as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It took twelve years to complete at a total cost of 800 talents. The structure was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century. In 36 AD, disturbances erupted between Jewish and Greek citizens when King Agrippa I visited the city. Caligula intervened to quell the violence that had escalated into open affronts and desecration of synagogues. Large parts of Alexandria were destroyed again during the Diaspora revolt in 115 AD. A tsunami struck the city on the 21st of July 365 AD following the Crete earthquake, an event annually commemorated as a day of horror.

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• 3. Islamic Conquest And Medieval Trade

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  Arab forces under general Amr ibn al-As invaded Alexandria after a fourteen-month siege in 641 AD. The first Arab governor recorded visiting the city was Utba ibn Abi Sufyan who built a governor's palace there in 664, 665. Ibn Battuta found the Pharos lighthouse partly ruined when he visited in 1326. By 1349 it had deteriorated so much that entering became impossible. Benjamin of Tudela described the medieval city as a trading market for all nations. Latin merchants from Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and other cities entered this market through funduqs. These fortified areas housed communities under the authority of consuls who adjudicated disputes between merchants. The sultans encouraged European trade because it brought considerable revenue and enabled them to obtain supplies of wood and iron. In the 14th century, Latin trade also provided mameluks often sold by Genoese merchants.

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• 4. Modernization Under Muhammad Ali

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  Muhammad Ali began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810 after Egypt turned to Europe for modernization efforts. By 1850 Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. Greeks followed by other Europeans and others began moving to the city during this period. French troops stormed the city on the 2nd of July 1798 during Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. British naval forces bombarded Alexandria in July 1882 before occupying it later that month. An Israeli bombing campaign targeted the city in July 1954 known as the Lavon Affair. Gamal Abdel Nasser survived an assassination attempt at Mansheya Square on the 26th of October 1954. Europeans began leaving Alexandria following the 1956 Suez Crisis which led to an outburst of Arab nationalism. Nationalisation of property reached its highest point in 1961 driving out nearly all the rest.

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• 5. Geography And Climate Vulnerability

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  Alexandria lies on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea within the Far West Nile delta area. The city experiences a hot steppe climate with virtually hot desert characteristics according to Köppen classification. January and February are the coolest months with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from specific values. July and August are the hottest and driest months with average daily maximum temperatures reaching high levels. A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 global warming would reach approximately certain degrees by 2100. Due to its location on a Nile river delta Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities to sea level rise in the entire world. Hundreds of thousands of people in low-lying areas may already have to be relocated before 2030. Rising sea levels cause increases in coastal aquifer levels reaching building foundations and accelerating their corrosion. In 2025 more than 7000 buildings in Alexandria will be at risk of collapse due to these groundwater processes.

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• 6. Economic Infrastructure And Industry

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  The city accounts for approximately 40% of Egypt's total industrial output in sectors such as chemicals metals and textiles. It hosts Egypt's largest port which serves as a major destination for domestic tourism. The Alexandria Public Free Zone in Amreya offers tax exemptions for businesses in apparel chemicals and iron steel production. Borg El Arab houses the city's main international airport and numerous manufacturing plants. As of late 2025 the city continues to serve as a primary center for refining crude oil and manufacturing specialized petroleum derivatives. Petroleum port is managed by APC handling export and import of petroleum products. TankOil Group provides accredited petroleum testing and analysis to ensure compliance with international standards. Total fish production in 2001 was estimated at approximately 11,627 tons from Mediterranean Sea waters and Lake Mariout. Nearly ten thousand fishermen worked in the lake producing about 20,000 tons of fish annually mostly tilapia representing 4.7% of total fish production in Egyptian lakes.

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• 7. Cultural Heritage And Tourism

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  Pompey's Pillar stands on Alexandria's ancient acropolis as one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing today. Including its pedestal it reaches 30 meters high with a shaft made out of polished red granite weighing approximately 396 tons. The Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa consist of a multi-level labyrinth discovered by accident in 1900 featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002 near the site of the old Library hosting the annual Alexandria International Film Festival. The Alexandria National Museum opened the 31st of December 2003 containing about 1,800 artifacts narrating the story of Alexandria and Egypt. In 2018 the city boasted 40 hotels of varying ratings while approximately 534,235 non-Egyptian tourists visited in 2006. Historic cinemas such as the Rio Cinema on Fouad Street are being studied and preserved as living examples of modern age architecture. Architects reimagined old vacant structures to give them new life while reducing urban waste during late 2025 centenary celebrations of Art Deco architecture.

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