Ustaše
In 1927, Ante Pavelić, a lawyer and politician from Zagreb, secretly contacted Benito Mussolini to present his vision for an independent Greater Croatia. This meeting marked the beginning of a political movement that would eventually become known as the Ustaše. The organization drew its ideological roots from 19th-century Croatian activist Ante Starčević, who advocated for Croatian unity and independence while opposing both Habsburg rule and Serbian influence. Starčević's theories envisioned a state encompassing territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering them all Croats who had been converted to Islam or Orthodox Christianity.
The movement was heavily influenced by Italian Fascism and later Nazi Germany. Its leader, Ante Pavelić, held the title of Poglavnik, modeled after the positions of Duce in Italy and Führer in Germany. The ideology promoted a corporatist economy and emphasized Roman Catholicism alongside Croatian ultranationalism. It viewed Eastern Orthodoxy as incompatible with their objectives and condemned it as the main religion of the Serbs.
By 1933, the Ustaše presented "The Seventeen Principles" which formed the official ideology of the movement. These principles declared the uniqueness of the Croatian nation and promoted collective rights over individual ones. They stated that people not considered Croat by blood would be excluded from political life. Those deemed undesirable were subjected to mass murder. The movement banned contraception and tightened laws against blasphemy to maintain social order through religious means.
On the 22nd of March 1929, Zvonimir Pospišil, Mijo Babić, Marko Hranilović, and Matija Soldin murdered Toni Šlegel, the chief editor of newspaper Novosti from Zagreb. This event marked the beginning of terrorist actions by the Ustaše organization. The group carried out various acts intended to maximize damage to Yugoslavia, including planting time bombs on international trains bound for the country.
Their most infamous act occurred on the 9th of October 1934 when they assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, France. Working with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), Bulgarian revolutionary Vlado Chernozemski killed the king. Three Ustaše members waiting at different locations, Mijo Kralj, Zvonimir Pospišil, and Milan Rajić, were captured and sentenced to life imprisonment by a French court. Ante Pavelić, along with Eugen Kvaternik and Ivan Perčević, were subsequently sentenced to death in absentia as real organizers of the plot.
After the assassination, all organizations related to the Ustaše were banned throughout Europe. Under pressure from France, Italian police arrested Pavelić and several Ustaše emigrants in October 1934. He was imprisoned in Turin but released in March 1936. By the mid-1930s, graffiti with the initials ŽAP meaning "Long live Ante Pavelić" had begun appearing on streets of Zagreb. During this period, a split developed between home-based Ustaše members who stayed behind in Croatia and Bosnia versus emigre Ustaše who went abroad.
The Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia on the 6th of April 1941. On the 10th of April, Slavko Kvaternik, the most senior home-based Ustaše, took control of police in Zagreb and proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) via radio broadcast. The name attempted to capitalize on Croat struggle for independence. Vladko Maček, leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, rejected German offers to lead the new government but issued a statement calling on all Croats to cooperate with the new authorities.
Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše left their camps in Italy for Zagreb where he declared a new government on the 16th of April 1941. He accorded himself the title of Poglavnik, a Croatian approximation to Führer. The state was declared on Croatian ethnic and historical territory including what is today Republic of Croatia without Istria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Syrmia, and Bay of Kotor. However, days after declaration, the Ustaše were forced to sign Treaty of Rome surrendering part of Dalmatia and various islands to Italy.
De facto control varied over course of war as Yugoslav Partisans grew more successful while Germans and Italians increasingly exercised direct control. By September 1943 after Italian capitulation, NDH reoccupied whole territory annexed by Italy through Treaty of Rome. The decline in support among ethnic Croats began with ceding Dalmatia considered heartland of state and worsened with internal lawlessness from persecutions.
Ustaše ministers Mile Budak and Milovan Žanić declared in May 1941 that goal of new policy was ethnically pure Croatia. Strategy involved killing one-third of Serbs, expelling another third, and forcibly converting the final third to Catholicism. State enacted race laws patterned after Third Reich which persecuted Jews, Romani, and Serbs collectively declared enemies of Croatian people.
Serbs, Jews, Roma, and Croatian and Bosniak dissidents including Communists were interned in concentration camps largest being Jasenovac. By end of war estimated deaths included around 30,000 Jews, 26,000, 29,000 Roma, and between 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs with historians generally listing between 300,000 and 350,000 deaths. First group of camps formed spring 1941 included Danica near Koprivnica, Slana and Metajna on Island of Pag, Jadovno near Gospić, Kruščica near Vitez and Travnik in Bosnia, Đakovo, Loborgrad in Zagorje, Tenja near Osijek closed by October 1942.
Jasenovac complex built August 1941 through February 1942 contained three newer camps functioning until war's end: Ciglana, Kozara, Stara Gradiška. Numbers of prisoners ranged from 300,000 to 700,000 in Jasenovac disputed figure. Other camps existed at Sisak, Jastrebarsko Children's Concentration Camp, Gospić, Kerestinec prison near Zagreb, Lepoglava near Varaždin.
As part policy eliminating Serbs entirely from NDH, Ustaše conducted forcible conversions of Christian Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism with participation of Catholic priests. Prospect of conversion sometimes merely ruse gathering Serbs so they could be murdered such as Glina incident. On the 18th of May 1943 Archbishop Stepinac wrote letter pope estimating 240,000 conversions had occurred.
Ustaše killed 157 Orthodox priests including three Serb Orthodox bishops cutting throat bishop Banja Luka killing archbishop Sarajevo while jailed torturing Orthodox archbishop Zagreb. Expelled Serbia 327 Orthodox priests one bishop two other bishops twelve priests left own accord. According NDH laws only uneducated Serbs eligible for conversion; educated people merchants intelligentia particularly Orthodox clergy exterminated expelled leaving Orthodox population without spiritual leadership making easier carrying out forced fear-induced conversions to Catholicism.
Croatian Catholic Church participated forced conversion Orthodox Serbs Roman Catholicism despite fact even conversion did not necessarily protect Serbs Jews slaughter. Bishop Alojzije Mišić Mostar described how while Serb converts attending holy Mass seized young old men women driven cattle sent eternity en masse. Croatian Catholic Church hierarchy regarded policies against Serbs Serbian Orthodox Church advantageous Roman Catholicism.
Army Independent State Croatia composed enlistees not participating Ustaše activities. Ustaše Militia organized 1941 into five later fifteen 700-man battalions two railway security battalions elite Black Legion Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion later Brigade predominantly recruited among uneducated working class population.
On the 27th of April 1941 newly formed unit Ustaše army killed members largely Serbian community Gudovac near Bjelovar Eventually all opposed threatening Ustaše outlawed HSS banned the 11th of June 1941 attempt taking place primary representative Croatian peasantry Vladko Maček sent Jasenovac concentration camp later released serve house arrest sentence due popularity people.
By 1944 Pavelić almost totally reliant Ustaše units now 100,000 strong formed Brigades one to twenty Recruit Training Brigades twenty-one to twenty-four three divisions two railway brigades one defensive brigade new Mobile Brigade November 1944 army effectively put under Ustaše control Armed Forces Independent State Croatia combined units Ustaše forming eighteen divisions comprising thirteen infantry two mountain two assault divisions one replacement division each own organic artillery other support units several armored units.
Fighting continued short while after formal surrender German Army Group E the 9th of May 1945 Pavelić ordered NDH forces attempting escape Austria together large number civilians Battle Poljana between mixed German Ustaše column Partisan force last battle World War II European soil. Most fleeing including both Ustaše civilians handed over Partisans Bleiburg elsewhere Austrian border.
Pavelić hid Austria Rome help Catholic clergy later fleeing Argentina After war many Ustaše went underground fled countries such Canada Australia Germany some South America notably Argentina assistance Roman Catholic churches grassroots supporters. For years some tried organize resistance group called Crusaders efforts largely foiled Yugoslav authorities Infighting fragmented surviving Ustaše.
Pavelić formed Croatian Liberation Movement drawing several former state leaders Vjekoslav Vrančić founded reformed Croatian Liberation Movement Maks Luburić formed Croatian National Resistance Branimir Jelić founded Croatian National Committee Former Crusader Ustaše mobile police officer Srecko Rover helped establish groups Australia Blagoje Jovović Montenegrin shot Pavelić near Buenos Aires the 9th of April 1957 Pavelić died injuries.
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Common questions
Who founded the Ustaše organization and when did it begin?
Ante Pavelić, a lawyer and politician from Zagreb, secretly contacted Benito Mussolini in 1927 to present his vision for an independent Greater Croatia. This meeting marked the beginning of a political movement that would eventually become known as the Ustaše.
What were the main ideological goals of the Ustaše regarding Serbs and Jews?
Ustaše ministers Mile Budak and Milovan Žanić declared in May 1941 that the goal of new policy was ethnically pure Croatia involving killing one-third of Serbs, expelling another third, and forcibly converting the final third to Catholicism. State enacted race laws patterned after Third Reich which persecuted Jews, Romani, and Serbs collectively declared enemies of Croatian people.
When did the Independent State of Croatia form under Ustaše control?
On the 10th of April 1941 Slavko Kvaternik took control of police in Zagreb and proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia via radio broadcast. Ante Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše left their camps in Italy for Zagreb where he declared a new government on the 16th of April 1941.
How many people died in Jasenovac concentration camp during World War II?
Numbers of prisoners ranged from 300,000 to 700,000 in Jasenovac disputed figure. The complex built August 1941 through February 1942 contained three newer camps functioning until war's end including Ciglana, Kozara, and Stara Gradiška.
Where did Ante Pavelić die and when was he killed?
Blagoje Jovović Montenegrin shot Pavelić near Buenos Aires the 9th of April 1957. Pavelić died injuries after fleeing Argentina following his time hiding in Austria and Rome with help from Catholic clergy.