Chetniks
The word Chetnik first appeared in the mid-18th century to describe members of army and police units. Some scholars trace its roots to the Turkish word çete, meaning "to plunder and burn down". Others argue it derives from the Proto-Slavic četa plus nik, translating to "member of a company". A third theory suggests a Latin origin related to coming together or assembly. The suffix -nik functions as a Slavic common personal suffix indicating a person involved with something. Matija Ban used the term Chetnik in 1848 when discussing armed units outside the Principality of Serbia opposing Ottoman rule. By the end of the 19th century, the label expanded to include members of military organizations with Serb ethnonationalist aims. Dating from 1904, the Serbian word commonly described guerrilla forces called Četniks operating within Macedonia under Ottoman control. These groups aimed to release the region from Ottoman rule and annex it to Serbia regardless of local population wishes. Small-scale rebellious activity akin to guerrilla warfare had long existed in South Slav lands under Ottoman domination. During the First Serbian Uprising beginning in 1804, bandit companies played crucial roles until large-scale fighting gave Ottomans the upper hand by 1813. A second rebellion broke out two years later using guerrilla tactics effectively to assist establishing the partially-independent Principality of Serbia. This principality expanded significantly in 1833 and became fully independent in 1878. Interest in guerrilla warfare remained high throughout this period with books commissioned by the Serbian government published in 1848 and 1868. Four years after independence, the principality transformed into the Kingdom of Serbia. Between 1904 and 1912, privately recruited fighters traveled to Macedonia within the Ottoman Empire aiming to liberate the area for Serbia. These groups were mainly commanded by officers on active duty in the Royal Serbian Army who soon took over direction of activities. Similar forces sent to Macedonia by Greece and Bulgaria resulted in clashes between Serbian Chetniks and their Bulgarian rivals alongside Ottoman authorities. Except for social democratic press outlets, these Chetnik actions received support in Serbia interpreted as serving national interests. Chetnik activities largely ceased following the 1908 Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire. The Chetniks participated actively in the Balkan Wars of 1912, 1913 used as vanguards to soften enemies ahead advancing armies. They attacked communications behind enemy lines spread panic confusion served field gendarmerie roles established basic administration occupied areas. Forces proved valuable during Balkan Wars so Serbian army utilized them similarly World War I though suffering heavy losses. At end of Serbian campaign 1914, 1915 they withdrew with army Great Retreat Corfu later fought Macedonian front. Montenegrin Chetniks also fought Austro-Hungarian occupation country. Late 1916 new Chetnik companies organized fight Bulgarian-occupied southeastern Serbia. Concerned about reprisals large-scale uprising Serbian army sent veteran leader Kosta Pećanac prevent outbreak. Bulgarians started conscripting Serbs hundreds joined Chetnik detachments resulting 1917 Toplica Uprising leadership Kosta Vojinović Pećanac eventually joined. Successful first uprising put down Bulgarians Austro-Hungarians bloody reprisals civilian population followed. Pećanac then used Chetniks sabotage raids against Bulgarian occupation troops infiltrated Austro-Hungarian occupied zone. Just prior war end Chetnik detachments dissolved some sent home others absorbed rest army. Kingdom Serbs Croats Slovenes created merger Serbia Montenegro South Slav-inhabited Austria-Hungary areas the 1st of December 1918 immediate aftermath war.
Due military record since 1904 Chetnik veterans became leading Serbian patriotic groups new state. In 1921 "Chetnik Association Freedom Honor Fatherland" organized Belgrade Chetnik veterans organizational aims cultivating Chetnik history spreading patriotic ideas caring widows orphans killed disabled Chetniks. Organization functioned political pressure group beginning questions leadership political ideology. Initially main political influence organization liberal Democratic Party challenge influence dominant People's Radical Party led split 1924. Pro-Radical Greater Serbia elements association broke formed two new organizations 1924 "Association Serbian Chetniks King Fatherland" "Association Serbian Chetniks Petar Mrkonjić". July 1925 these two organizations amalgamated "Association Serbian Chetniks Petar Mronjić King Fatherland" led Puniša Račić elected National Assembly Radical representative 1927 murdered three Croatian Peasant Party assassination Parliament floor National Assembly. He presided great deal dissension until organization ceased operate. After imposition royal dictatorship King Alexander 1929 time state renamed Kingdom Yugoslavia Račić former organization dissolved former dissidents rejoined original "Chetnik Association Freedom Honor Fatherland" officially sanctioned. Immediately following end World War I formation new state widespread unrest. Pro-Bulgarian sentiment rife Macedonia referred South Serbia Belgrade government. Little support Macedonian populace regime. Extensive measures undertaken serbianise Macedonia including closing Bulgarian Orthodox Church schools revising history textbooks dismissing unreliable teachers banning use Bulgarian language imposing lengthy jail terms convicted anti-state activities. Over 300 Macedonian advocates Greater Bulgaria murdered between 1918 and 1924 thousands arrested same period around 50,000 troops stationed Macedonia. Thousands Serb colonists settled Macedonia. Bands Chetniks including one led Jovan Babunski organized terrorise population kill pro-Bulgarian resistance leaders impress local population forced labour army. Resistance Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization met further terror including formation 1922 Association against Bulgarian Bandits led Pećanac Ilija Trifunović-Lune based Štip eastern Macedonia. Organisation quickly garnered reputation indiscriminate terrorisation Macedonian populace. Pećanac Chetniks also active fighting Albanians resisting Serb Montenegrin colonisation Kosovo. Even homogenizing pressures dictatorship Chetniks not monolithic movement. In 1929 Ilija Trifunović-Birčanin became president association serving until 1932 when became president another Serbian nationalist organisation National Defence established rival "Association Old Chetniks" latter never challenged main Chetnik organisation. He replaced Pećanac continued lead organisation invasion Yugoslavia April 1941. Starting 1929 main Chetnik organisations established chapters at least 24 cities towns outside Serbia proper many large Croatian populations. Expansion what remained Serb nationalist-chauvinist movement outside Serbia proper escalated ethnic tensions especially conflict Serbs Croats. Under Pećanac leadership membership Chetnik organisation opened new young members served war interested joining political economic reasons course 1930s took organisation nationalist veterans association focused protecting veterans rights aggressively partisan Serb political organisation reached 500,000 members throughout Yugoslavia more than 1,000 groups. Trifunović-Birčanin others unhappy aggressive expansion organisation move away traditional Chetnik ideals. After 1935 Chetnik activity officially banned predominantly Croat Sava Banovina almost entirely Slovene Drava Banovina Chetnik groups regions able continue operating lower level. During period Pećanac formed close ties far-right Yugoslav Radical Union government Milan Stojadinović ruled Yugoslavia 1935 to 1939. Interwar period limited training guerrilla warfare given junior officers army 1929 Handbook Guerrilla Warfare published government provide guidance. In 1938 General Staff revised approach detailed 1929 recognising operations similar those carried Chetniks between 1904 and 1918 possible modern war clearly indicating would not entrust important wartime functions Chetnik Association.
After outbreak World War II September 1939 General Staff aware Yugoslavia ready war Axis powers concerned neighboring countries igniting civil war Yugoslavia. Despite misgivings using Chetniks guerrilla warfare April 1940 General Staff established Chetnik Command eventually comprised six full battalions spread throughout country. Clear series Yugoslav war plans 1938 to 1941 General Staff real commitment guerrilla warfare prior April 1941 Axis invasion Yugoslavia seriously consider employing Chetnik Association role either. Short time before invasion Pećanac approached General Staff authorising organise guerrilla units 5th Army area providing arms funds purpose. 5th Army responsible Romanian Bulgarian borders Iron Gates Greek border. On the 6th of April 1941 Yugoslavia drawn World War II Germany Italy Hungary invaded occupied country partitioned. Some Yugoslav territory annexed Axis neighbours Hungary Bulgaria Italy. Germans engineered supported creation fascist Ustaše puppet state Independent State Croatia NDH roughly comprised pre-war Banovina Croatia rest present-day Bosnia Herzegovina adjacent territory. Before defeat King Peter II government went exile reforming June Western Allied-recognised Yugoslav government-in-exile London. All elements Chetnik Command captured during invasion record them used intended purpose elements units operated organised way surrender. In early days invasion army Colonel Draža Mihailović deputy chief staff 2nd Army deployed Bosnia. On the 13th of April commanding unit area Doboj the 15th of April advised decision Supreme Staff wartime General Staff surrender. Few dozen members unit almost exclusively Serbs joined Mihailović decided follow orders group took hills. Group marched southeast east aiming get mountainous interior became German-occupied territory Serbia hope linking other elements defeated army chosen keep resisting. First few days Mihailović's group attacked German forces. Group joined parties soldiers heard news others continuing resist. On the 28th of April group about 80 strong crossed Drina River next day though over next few days lost number officers enlisted men concerned pending hardship uncertainty. After crossing Drina group also attacked gendarmes belonging collaborationist puppet Commissioner Government. On the 6th of May Mihailović's remaining group surrounded German troops near Užice almost completely destroyed. On the 13th of May Mihailović arrived some shepherd huts Ravna Gora western slopes Suvobor Mountain near town Gornji Milanovac central part occupied territory by time group consisted seven officers 27 other ranks. At point now aware no elements army fighting faced decision whether surrender Germans themselves form core resistance movement Mihailović men chose latter. Due location headquarters organisation known "Ravna Gora Movement". While adherents Chetnik movement claimed Mihailović's Chetniks first resistance movement founded Yugoslavia World War II accurate if resistance movement defined political military organisation relatively large numbers men conducting armed operations intended carried determination more less continuously. Soon arrival Ravna Gora Mihailović's Chetniks set command post designated themselves "Chetnik Detachments Yugoslav Army". Name clearly derivative earlier Chetniks evoked traditions long distinguished record Chetniks earlier conflicts Mihailović's organisation no way connected interwar Chetnik associations Chetnik Command established 1940. As early August Chetnik Central National Committee formed provide Mihailović advice domestic international political affairs liaise civilian populace throughout occupied territory parts occupied Yugoslavia Chetnik movement strong support. Members men standing Serbian political cultural circles before war CNK members also served Belgrade Chetnik Committee supporting movement. Much early CNK drawn minuscule Yugoslav Republican Party minor Agrarian Party. Three most important members CNK comprised executive committee much war Dragiša Vasić lawyer former vice-president nationalist Serbian Cultural Club former member Yugoslav Republican Party Stevan Moljević Bosnian Serb lawyer Mladen Žujović Vasić law firm partner also member Yugoslav Republican Party. Vasić most important three designated Mihailović ranking member three-man committee along Potpukovnik Lieutenant Colonel Dragoslav Pavlović Major Jezdimir Dangić take over leadership organisation anything happen him. Effect Vasić Mihailović's deputy.
From beginning Mihailović's movement May 1941 Ba Congress January 1944 ideology objectives movement promulgated series documents. June 1941 two months became key member CNK Moljević wrote memorandum entitled Homogeneous Serbia advocated creation Greater Serbia within Greater Yugoslavia include vast majority pre-war Yugoslav territory significant amount territory belonged all Yugoslavia neighbours. Within Greater Serbia consist 65, 70 per cent total Yugoslav territory population Croatia reduced small rump. Plan included large-scale population transfers evicting non-Serb population borders Greater Serbia though did not suggest numbers. Same time Moljević developing Homogeneous Serbia Belgrade Chetnik Committee formulated proposal contained territorial provisions very similar detailed Moljević plan went further providing details large-scale population shifts needed make Greater Serbia ethnically homogenous. Advocated expelling 2,675,000 people Greater Serbia including 1,000,000 Croats 500,000 Germans. Total 1,310,000 Serbs brought Greater Serbia outside boundaries 300,000 Serbs from Croatia. Greater Serbia entirely Serb however about 200,000 Croats allowed stay within borders. No figures proposed shifting Bosnian Muslims out Greater Serbia identified problem solved final stages war immediately afterwards. CNK approved Greater Serbia project formed August. Assumed Mihailović hard-core Serb nationalist himself endorsed most proposals. Contents reflected 1941 Chetnik leaflet entitled Our Way made specific references proclamation Serbian people December set detailed instructions dated the 20th of December 1941 Pavle Đurišić Đorđije Lašić newly appointed Chetnik commanders Italian governorate Montenegro. Belgrade Chetnik Committee proposal smuggled occupied Serbia September delivered Yugoslav government-in-exile London Chetnik agent Miloš Sekulić. March 1942 Chetnik Dinara Division promulgated statement accepted following month meeting Chetnik commanders Bosnia Herzegovina northern Dalmatia Lika Strmica near Knin. Program contained details very similar included Mihailović's instructions Đurišić Lašić December 1941. Mentioned mobilisation Serbs regions cleanse other ethnic groups adopted several additional strategies: collaboration Italian occupiers determined armed opposition NDH Partisans decent treatment Bosnian Muslims keep joining Partisans though later eliminated creation separate Croatian Chetnik units formed pro-Yugoslav anti-Partisan Croats. From the 30th of November to the 2nd of December 1942 Conference Young Chetnik Intellectuals Montenegro met Šahovići Italian-occupied Montenegro. Mihailović attended chief staff Zaharije Ostojić Đurišić Lašić attended Đurišić playing dominant role. Advanced strategies constituted important expanded version overall Chetnik program report meeting bore official Chetnik stamp. Reinforced main Greater Serbia objective Chetnik movement additionally advocated retention Karađorđević dynasty espoused unitary Yugoslavia self-governing Serb Croat Slovene units excluding entities other Yugoslav peoples Macedonians Montenegrins minorities. Envisaged post-war Chetnik dictatorship hold power country approval King gendarmerie recruited Chetnik ranks intense promotion Chetnik ideology throughout country. Final Chetnik ideological document appeared prior Ba Congress January 1944 manual prepared Chetnik leadership around same time Conference Young Chetnik Intellectuals Montenegro late 1942. Explained Chetniks viewed war three phases invasion capitulation others period organising waiting conditions warranted general uprising occupying forces finally general attack occupiers all competitors power Chetnik assumption complete control Yugoslavia expulsion most national minorities arrest internal enemies. Crucially identified two most important tasks second phase: Chetnik-led organisation third phase party political influences incapacitation internal enemies first priority Partisans. Revenge against Partisans Ustaše incorporated manual sacred duty. Manual paid lip service Yugoslavism Chetniks really wish become all-Yugoslav movement inconsistent main objective achieving Greater Serbia within Greater Yugoslavia. Due Serb nationalist stance never developed realistic view national question Yugoslavia disregarded legitimate interests other Yugoslav peoples. Ideology therefore attractive non-Serbs except Macedonians Montenegrins considered themselves Serbs. Only new aspect Chetnik Greater Serbia ideology long-standing traditional one plan cleanse Greater Serbia non-Serbs clearly response massacres Serbs Ustaše NDH. Final documents detailing Chetnik ideology produced Ba Congress called Mihailović January 1944 response November 1943 Second Session communist-led Anti-Fascist Council National Liberation Yugoslavia AVNOJ Partisans. Second Session AVNOJ resolved post-war Yugoslavia federal republic based six equal constituent republics asserted sole legitimate government Yugoslavia denied right King return exile popular referendum determine future rule. Month after Second Session AVNOJ major Allied powers met Tehran decided provide exclusive support Partisans withdraw support Chetniks. Congress held circumstances large parts Chetnik movement progressively drawn collaboration occupying forces helpers course war may held tacit approval Germans. Document produced Ba Congress called Goals Ravna Gora Movement came two parts. First part Yugoslav Goals Ravna Gora Movement stated Yugoslavia democratic federation three units one each Serbs Croats Slovenes national minorities expelled. Second part Serbian Goals Ravna Gora Movement reinforced existing Chetnik idea all Serbian provinces united Serbian unit within federal arrangement based solidarity all Serb regions Yugoslavia unicameral parliament. Congress also resolved Yugoslavia constitutional monarchy headed Serb sovereign. According some historians new program Chetniks social-democratic Yugoslavism change federal Yugoslav structure dominant Serb unit asserting need gather all Serbs single entity Serbian Goals Ravna Gora Movement reminiscent Homogeneous Serbia. Congress did not recognise Macedonia Montenegro separate nations implied Croatia Slovenia effectively appendages Serbian entity. Net effect outcome country return same Serb-dominated state interwar period worse particularly Croats. Concludes expected given overwhelmingly Serb makeup congress included two or three Croats one Slovene Bosnian Muslim among 300 attendees. Historian Marko Attila Hoare agrees despite superficial Yugoslavism congress clear Greater Serbia inclinations. Congress expressed interest reforming economic social cultural position country particularly regarding democratic ideals. Significant departure previous Chetnik goals expressed earlier war especially terms promoting democratic principles socialist features. Tomasevich observes new goals probably related achieving propaganda objectives reflecting actual intentions real interest considering needs non-Serb peoples Yugoslavia. Practical outcome congress establishment single political party movement Yugoslav Democratic National Union JDNZ expansion CNK however congress did nothing improve position Chetnik movement. Beyond main Serbian irredentist objective Mihailović's Chetnik movement extreme Serb nationalist organisation paid lip service Yugoslavism actually opposed anti-Croat anti-Muslim supported monarchy anti-communist. Given ethnic religious divisions Yugoslavia narrow ideology Chetnik movement seriously impinged military political potential. Political scientist Sabrina Ramet observed Both Chetniks' political program extent collaboration amply voluminously documented bit disappointing people still found believe Chetniks doing anything besides attempting realize vision ethnically homogeneous Greater Serbian state intended advance short run policy collaboration Axis forces.
Chetniks almost exclusively made up Serbs except large number Montenegrins identified Serbs consisted local defence units marauding bands Serb villagers anti-partisan auxiliaries forcibly mobilised peasants armed refugees small groups uncaptured Yugoslav officers attempting without success mold organised fighting force. Aforementioned Chetnik manual late 1942 discussed idea enlisting significant number Croats movement attracted small groups Chetnik-aligned Croats central Dalmatia Primorje never political military significance within Chetniks. Small group Slovenes under Major Karl Novak Italian-annexed Province Ljubljana also supported Mihailović played important role. Long standing mutual animosity Muslims Serbs throughout Bosnia period late April May 1941 first Chetnik mass atrocities carried non-Serbs Bosnia Herzegovina other ethnically heterogeneous areas. Few Sandžak Bosnian Muslims supported Mihailović some Jews joined Chetniks especially members right-wing Zionist Betar movement alienated Serb xenophobia eventually left defecting Partisans. Collaboration Chetniks Italians later Germans factor Jewish rejection Chetnik movement. Vast majority Orthodox priests supported Chetniks notable Momčilo Đujić Savo Božić became commanders. Chetnik policies barred women performing significant roles. No women took part fighting units restricted nursing occasional intelligence work. Low status female peasants areas Yugoslavia Chetniks strongest could utilized advantageous military political psychological terms. Treatment women fundamental difference Chetniks Partisans Chetnik propaganda disparaged female role Partisans. Ruth Mitchell ca. 1889, 1969 reporter American woman serve Chetniks. Fluent German worked Chetniks spy courier about year. Initially Mihailović's organisation focussed recruiting establishing groups different areas raising funds establishing courier network collecting arms ammunition. From very beginning strategy organise build strength postpone armed operations occupation forces withdrawing face hoped landing Western Allies Yugoslavia. Pre-war Chetnik leader Pećanac soon came arrangement Nedić collaborationist regime Territory Military Commander Serbia. Colonel Draža Mihailović interested resisting occupying powers set headquarters Ravna Gora named group "Ravna Gora Movement" distinguish Pećanac Chetniks. Other Chetniks engaged collaboration Germans Chetnik name again associated Mihailović. Movement later renamed Yugoslav Army Homeland though original name movement remained common use throughout war even among Chetniks themselves. Forces generally referred Chetniks throughout World War II name also used smaller groups including those Pećanac Nedić Dimitrije Ljotić. June 1941 following start Operation Barbarossa communist-led Partisans Josip Broz Tito organised uprising period between June November 1941 Chetniks Partisans largely cooperated anti-Axis activities. Chetnik uprisions often conjunction Partisans against Axis occupation forces began early July 1941 Western Serbia. Uprisings areas Loznica Rogatica Banja Koviljača Olovo lead early victories. On the 19th of September 1941 Tito Mihailović met first time Struganik where Tito offered Mihailović chief-of-staff post return merger units. Mihailović refused attack Germans fearing reprisals promised not attack Partisans. According Mihailović reason humanitarian prevention German reprisals Serbs published rate 100 civilians every German soldier killed 50 civilians every soldier wounded. On the 20th of October Tito proposed 12-point program Mihailović basis cooperation. Six days later Tito Mihailović met Mihailović's headquarters where Mihailović rejected principal points Tito proposal including establishment common headquarters joint military actions against Germans quisling formations establishment combined staff supply troops formation national liberation committees. Disagreements lead uprisings quashed Montenegro Novi Pazar poor coordination resistance forces. Mihailović fears ongoing reprisals became reality two mass murder campaigns conducted Serb civilians Kraljevo Kragujevac reaching combined death toll over 4,500 civilians. Killings Independent State Croatia full swing thousands Serb civilians killed Ustaše militia death squads. Late October Mihailović concluded Partisans rather Axis forces primary enemies Chetniks. Avoid reprisals Serb civilians Mihailović's Chetniks fought guerrilla force rather regular army. Estimated three-quarters Orthodox clergy occupied Yugoslavia supported Chetniks notable Momčilo Đujić prominent Chetnik commanders. While Partisans opted overt acts sabotage led reprisals civilians Axis forces Chetniks opted subtle form resistance. Instead detonating TNT destroy railway tracks disrupt Axis railway lines Chetniks contaminated railway fuel sources tampered mechanical components ensuring trains derail breakdown random times. Martin suggests acts sabotage significantly crippled supplies lines Afrika Korps fighting North Africa. On the 2nd of November Mihailović's Chetniks attacked Partisan headquarters Užice attack driven back counterattack followed next day Chetniks lost 1,000 men battles large amount weaponry. On the 18th of November Mihailović accepted truce offer Tito though attempts establish common front failed. Month British government request Yugoslav government-in-exile insisted Tito make Mihailović commander-in-chief resistance forces Yugoslavia demand refused. Partisan-Chetnik truces repeatedly violated Chetniks killing local Partisan commander October later under orders Mihailović staff massacring 30 Partisan supporters mostly girls wounded individuals November. Despite Chetniks Partisans eastern Bosnia continued cooperate some time. December 1941 Yugoslav government-in-exile London King Peter II promoted Mihailović Brigadier-General named commander Yugoslav Home Army. By time established friendly relations Nedić Government National Salvation Germans requested weaponry fight Partisans rejected General Franz Böhme stated deal Partisans themselves demanded Mihailović surrender. Around time Germans launched attack Mihailović's forces Ravna Gora effectively routed Chetniks Territory Military Commander Serbia. Bulk Chetnik forces retreated eastern Bosnia Sandžak centre Chetnik activity moved Independent State Croatia. British liaison Mihailović advised Allied command stop supplying Chetniks attacks Partisans German attack Užice Britain continued do so. Throughout period 1941 and 1942 Chetniks Partisans provided refugee Allied POWs especially ANZAC troops escaped railway carriages en route via Yugoslavia Axis POW camps. According Lawrence following Allied defeat Battle Crete POWs transported via Yugoslavia railway carriages some ANZAC troops escaping occupied Serbia. Chetniks under command Mihailović provided refugee ANZAC troops either repatriated recaptured Axis forces.
Throughout war Chetnik movement remained mostly inactive against occupation forces increasingly collaborated Axis eventually losing international recognition Yugoslav resistance force. After brief initial period cooperation Partisans Chetniks quickly started fighting each other. Gradually Chetniks ended up primarily fighting Partisans instead occupation forces started cooperating Axis struggle destroy Partisans receiving increasing amounts logistical assistance. Mihailović admitted British colonel Chetniks principal enemies partisans Ustasha Muslims Croats last Germans Italians order. Start conflict Chetnik forces active uprising against Axis occupation contacts negotiations Partisans. Changed talks broke proceeded attack latter actively fighting Germans continuing engage Axis minor skirmishes. Attacking Germans provoked strong retaliation Chetniks increasingly started negotiate stop further bloodshed. Negotiations occupiers aided two sides mutual goal destroying Partisans. Collaboration first appeared operations Partisan Užice Republic Chetniks played part general Axis attack. Collaboration Italian occupation forces fascist Italy took place three main areas: Italian-occupied Italian-annexed Dalmatia Italian puppet state Montenegro Italian-annexed later German-occupied Ljubljana Province Slovenia. Collaboration Dalmatia parts Bosnia Herzegovina most widespread. Split between Partisans Chetniks took place earlier areas. Partisans considered all occupation forces fascist enemy Chetniks hated Ustaše balked fighting Italians approached Italian VI Army Corps General Renzo Dalmazzo Commander early July August 1941 assistance via Serb politician Lika Stevo Rađenović. In particular Chetnik vojvodas leaders Trifunović-Birčanin Jevđević favorably disposed Italians believing Italian occupation all Bosnia-Herzegovina detrimental influence Ustaše state. Another reason collaboration necessity protect Serbs Ustaše Balli Kombëtar. When Balli Kombëtar earmarked Visoki Dečani monastery destruction Italian troops sent Orthodox monastery destruction highlighted Chetniks necessity collaboration. Reason sought alliance Italian occupation forces Yugoslavia. Chetniks noticed Italy occupied territories implemented traditional policy deceiving Croats help Serbs believed Italy case victory Axis powers favour Serbs Lika northern Dalmatia Bosnia Herzegovina Serbian autonomy created area under Italian protectorate. Italians especially General Dalmazzo looked favorably approaches hoped first avoid fighting Chetniks then use them against Partisans strategy thought give enormous advantage. Agreement concluded the 11th of January 1942 representative Italian 2nd Army Captain Angelo De Matteis Chetnik representative southeastern Bosnia Mutimir Petković later signed Draža Mihailović chief delegate Bosnia Major Boško Todorović. Among provisions agreement agreed Italians support Chetnik formations arms provisions facilitate release recommended individuals Axis concentration camps Jasenovac Rab etc. Chief interest Chetniks Italians assist combating Partisan-led resistance. According Martin Chetnik-Italian truce received British Intelligence seen way garnering intelligence. Birčanin instructed gather information harbor facilities troop movements mining operations Axis communications preparation Allied invasion Dubrovnik coast scheduled 1943 invasion never eventuated. Following months 1942 General Mario Roatta commander Italian 2nd Army worked developing Linea di condotta Policy Directive relations Chetniks Ustaše Partisans. Line efforts General Vittorio Ambrosio outlined Italian policy Yugoslavia: All negotiations quisling Ustaše avoided contacts Chetniks advisable. Partisans struggle bitter end. Mean General Roatta essentially free take action regard Chetniks saw fit. April 1942 Chetniks Italians cooperated battles Partisans around Knin. Chetnik commander Dobroslav Jevđević conferring Italian officers February 1943 outlined four points policy report Italian Army General Staff. In 1942 and 1943 overwhelming proportion Chetnik forces Italian-controlled areas occupied Yugoslavia organized Italian auxiliary forms Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia Milizia Volontaria Anti Comunista MVAC. According General Giacomo Zanussi Colonel Roatta chief staff 19,000 to 20,000 Chetniks MVAC Italian-occupied parts Independent State Croatia alone. Chetniks extensively supplied thousands rifles grenades mortars artillery pieces. Memorandum dated the 26th of March 1943 Italian Army General Staff entitled Conduct Chetniks. Allegiance Chetniks Italians crucial protecting Serbs Lika Dalmatian region ongoing attacks Ustaše. Italian forces provided Serb civilians weapons protect villages accommodated thousands Serb civilians escaping ongoing genocide Serbs Independent State Croatia. Đujić used events way justifying allegiance ordered Mihailović February 1943 break allegiance Đujić refused stated break truce mean certain death tens thousands Serb civilians. Italian officers noted ultimate control collaborating Chetnik units hands Draža Mihailović contemplated possibility hostile reorientation troops light changing strategic situation. Commander troops Trifunović-Birčanin arrived Italian-annexed Split October 1941 received orders directly Mihailović spring 1942. By time Italy capitulated the 8th of September 1943 all Chetnik detachments Italian-controlled parts Independent State Croatia one time collaborated Italians against Partisans. Collaboration lasted right until Italian capitulation Chetnik troops switched supporting German occupation trying force Partisans coastal cities Partisans liberated Italian withdrawal. After Allies not land Dalmatia hoped Chetnik detachments entered collaboration Germans avoid caught between Germans Partisans.
Chetnik groups fundamental disagreement Ustaše practically issues found common enemy Partisans overriding reason collaboration ensued Ustaše authorities NDH Chetnik detachments Bosnia. Agreement commander major Emil Rataj commander Chetnik organizations Mrkonjić Grad area Uroš Drenović signed the 27th of April 1942 heavy defeat conflict Kozara Partisan battalion. Contracting parties obliged joint struggle Partisans return Serbian villages protected NDH authorities together Chetniks attacks communists so-called Partisans. Fikreta Jelić Butić 1986 Četnici Hrvatskoj 1941, 1945 p. 108 Globus Chetnik commanders Vrbas Sana the 13th of May 1942 gave written confession NDH authorities cessation hostilities voluntarily take part fight Partisans. Banja Luka two days later signed agreement cessation hostilities Chetniks area between Vrbas Sana withdrawal Home Guard units area Petar Gvozdić Chetnik commanders Lazar Tešanović Chetnik detachment Obilić Cvetko Aleksić Chetnik detachment Mrkonjić. After several signed agreements Chetnik commanders meeting near Kotor Varoš concluded remaining Chetnik detachments sign agreements realized benefits great Chetnik movement. NDH authorities during May June 1942 signed agreements east Bosnian Chetniks detachments. Commandant Ozren Chetnik detachment Cvijetin Todić requested meeting reach agreement representatives NDH authorities. Ante Pavelic appointed persons negotiations conditions: return homes hand weapons loyal authorities NDH. Return promised every Serbian village receive weapons fight Partisans state employment Chetniks stood out fight Partisans receive decorations awards. Ozren Trebava Chetnik detachments signed agreement the 28th of May 1942. On the 30th of May 1942 Majevica Chetnik detachment signed agreement important novelty; Chetniks area Ozren Trebava given self-governing power autonomy performed Chetniks' commanders. Almost identical agreement signed the 14th of June 1942 Zenica Chetnik detachment. Later period similar agreements signed Chetnik detachments area Lika northern Dalmatia. Next three weeks three additional agreements signed covering large part area Bosnia comprising Chetnik detachments within it. Provision agreements Chetniks cease hostilities Ustaše state Ustaše establish regular administration areas. According report Edmund Glaise-Horstenau the 26th of February 1944 based official NDH data NDH territory existed thirty five Chetnik groups nineteen groups 17,500 men collaborated Croatian German authorities rebel Chetniks sixteen groups 5,800-man. Chetniks recognized sovereignty Independent State Croatia became legalized movement. Main provision Art. 5 agreement stated: Military political expediency best explained agreements historian Enver Redžić notes Ustasha-Chetnik accords driven confluence Serbian Croatian national interests mutual desire acceptance respect rather side needed obstruct Partisan advances. Agreements stopped crimes Serbs Ustaše Muslims Croats Chetniks persisted areas other control regions no agreements existed. Necessary ammunition provisions supplied Chetniks Ustaše military. Chetniks wounded operations cared NDH hospitals orphans widows Chetniks killed action supported Ustaše state. Persons specifically recommended Chetnik commanders returned home Ustaše concentration camps. Agreements covered majority Chetnik forces Bosnia east German-Italian demarcation line lasted throughout most war. Since Croatian forces immediately subordinate German military occupation collaboration Croatian forces indirect collaboration Germans. Although Dinara Division under command Đujić received support NDH Chetniks under command Mihailović refused collaborate NDH. Throughout war Mihailović continued refer NDH enemy engaged Ustaše forces Serbian border areas. Mihailović animosity towards Ustaše due ongoing genocidal policies NDH against Serb population minority groups. Fleeing Partisans March 1945 Pavle Đurišić negotiated agreement Ustaše Ustaše-supported Montenegrin separatist Sekula Drljević provide safe conduct Chetniks across NDH. Ustaše agreed Chetniks failed follow agreed-upon withdrawal route Ustaše attacked Chetniks Lijevče Field afterward killing captured commanders remaining Chetniks continued withdraw Austria NDH army under military command. Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić ordered NDH military give Momčilo Đujić Dinara Division Chetniks orderly unimpeded passage Đujić forces fled across NDH Slovenia Italy. Early May 1945 Chetnik forces withdrew through Ustaše-held Zagreb many later killed captured Ustaše Partisans part Bleiburg repatriations. Operation Weiss major Chetnik collaboration Axis took place Battle Neretva final phase Operation Weisss known Yugoslav historiography Fourth Enemy Offensive. In 1942 Partisan forces rise having established large liberated territories Bosnia Herzegovina. Germans began planning offensive against Partisans aiming destroy supreme headquarters. After destroying Partisan-held territories Bosnia Croatia final phase operation called Italians disarm Chetniks simultaneously conducting operations against Partisans. Despite Hitler insistence Italian forces end refused disarm Chetniks rendering course action impossible. Agreement German general Alexander Löhr Italian general Mario Roatta the 8th of February 1943 included Mihailović's Chetniks operations gave material assistance weapons ammunitions. Collaboration Germans Chetniks entered new phase Italian surrender because Germans now police much larger area before fight Partisans whole Yugoslavia. Consequently significantly liberalized policy towards Chetniks mobilized all Serb nationalist forces against Partisans. 2nd Panzer Army oversaw developments XV Army Corps officially allowed utilize Chetnik troops forge local alliance. First formal direct agreement German occupation forces Chetniks early October 1943 German-led 373rd Croatian Infantry Division detachment Chetniks under Mane Rokvić operating western Bosnia Lika. Germans subsequently used Chetnik troops guard duty occupied Split Dubrovnik Šibenik Metković. NDH troops not used despite Ustaše demands mass desertions Croat troops Partisans rendered unreliable. From point German occupation started openly favor Chetnik Serb troops over Croat formations NDH pro-Partisan dispositions Croatian rank-and-file. Germans paid little attention frequent Ustaše protests about situation. Captain Merrem intelligence officer German commander-in-chief southeastern Europe full praise Chetnik units collaborating Germans smooth relations Germans Chetnik units ground. Chief Staff 2nd Panzer Army observed letter
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word Chetnik?
The word Chetnik first appeared in the mid-18th century to describe members of army and police units. Some scholars trace its roots to the Turkish word çete meaning to plunder and burn down while others argue it derives from the Proto-Slavic četa plus nik translating to member of a company.
When did Draža Mihailović establish the Ravna Gora Movement?
Draža Mihailović established the Ravna Gora Movement on the 13th of May 1941 after his group arrived at shepherd huts near Gornji Milanovac. This organization became known as the Ravna Gora Movement when he chose to form a core resistance movement rather than surrender to German forces.
Who were the key figures in the Chetnik Central National Committee formed in August 1941?
Three most important members of the Chetnik Central National Committee comprised executive committee Dragiša Vasić Stevan Moljević and Mladen Žujović. Dragiša Vasić was designated as Mihailović's deputy and ranking member of the three-man committee alongside Potpukovnik Lieutenant Colonel Dragoslav Pavlović and Major Jezdimir Dangić.
What was the Homogeneous Serbia plan proposed by Stevan Moljević?
Stevan Moljević wrote a memorandum entitled Homogeneous Serbia advocating creation of Greater Serbia within Greater Yugoslavia including vast majority pre-war Yugoslav territory. The plan included large-scale population transfers evicting non-Serb population borders Greater Serbia though did not suggest numbers and advocated expelling 2,675,000 people including 1,000,000 Croats and 500,000 Germans.
When did Chetniks sign agreements with Italian occupation forces in Bosnia Herzegovina?
Chetniks signed an agreement with Italian representatives on the 11th of January 1942 to combat Partisan-led resistance. This collaboration continued until Italy capitulated on the 8th of September 1943 when all Chetnik detachments in Italian-controlled parts of Independent State Croatia switched supporting German occupation.