Satan
The Hebrew term śāţān first appears in the Book of Numbers, where an Angel of Yahweh stands on a road as a satan against Balaam. This generic noun meaning accuser or adversary describes human enemies like Hadad the Edomite and Rezon the Syrian. In later books such as Job 1, 2 and Zechariah 3:1, 2, the word functions as a proper name for a heavenly prosecutor. The definite article ha-satan occurs seventeen times in the Masoretic Text, specifically within these two books. During the Second Temple Period, Jewish conceptions shifted under Zoroastrian influence from the Achaemenid Empire. Angra Mainyu, the Zoroastrian spirit of evil, darkness, and ignorance, shaped how Jews viewed this figure. The apocryphal Book of Jubilees, written around 150 BC, introduced Mastema as Chief of Spirits who tempted humans to sin. This text retells the story of the Watchers, a group of two hundred angels who abandoned their duties to have sexual intercourse with human women. Semjâzâ led the Watchers while Azazel spread corruption among humankind. God allowed Mastema to keep some demon offspring to punish wickedness, creating a dualistic opposition to God that did not exist earlier.
Justin Martyr became the first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden in chapters 45 and 79 of his Dialogue with Trypho during the second century AD. Early Church Fathers like Theophilus and Tertullian followed this identification, linking the devil to the ancient serpent mentioned in Revelation 12:9. Origen of Alexandria concluded that Isaiah 14:12 was an allegory for Satan rather than a literal reference to the king of Babylon. Jerome accepted Origen's theory when translating the Latin Vulgate, cementing the idea of a fallen angel rebelled against God. The ransom theory of atonement gained popularity among early Christian theologians, suggesting Christ's death on the cross served as a payment to Satan. Irenaeus of Lyons described a prototypical form of this theory before Origen developed it fully. Gregory of Nyssa and Rufinus of Aquileia later expanded these theological frameworks. Anselm of Canterbury criticized the ransom theory in the eleventh century, causing its decline in western Europe. Despite this criticism, Eastern Orthodox churches retained some elements of the belief system. Most early Christians firmly believed that Satan possessed the power to possess humans through demonic possession. Exorcisms were widely practiced by Jews, Christians, and pagans alike throughout the Middle Ages into the early modern period.
Seven chapters in the Quran describe how God ordered all angels and Iblis to bow before the newly created human Adam. All the angels bowed except Iblis, who claimed superiority because he was made from fire while Adam came from clay. Consequently, God expelled him from Paradise and condemned him to Jahannam for becoming an ungrateful disbeliever. Muslim exegetes disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of evil jinn due to conflicting textual descriptions. Ibn Abbas asserted that Iblis was originally an angel named Azazil created out of fire. Hasan of Basra argued that Iblis was not an angel even for the time of an eye wink but rather the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind. Al-Baydawi stated that Satan was an angel in essence but behaved like the jinn. Al-Tabari wrote that earthly jinn made of smokeless fire roamed the earth before Adam's creation. He described Azazil defeating these jinn in battle before growing negligent and being rehabilitated. Some traditions claim Satan was one of the earthly jinn taken captive by angels and brought to Heaven as a prisoner. This figure became known as Al-Hakam after fulfilling his duty as judge over other jinn for a thousand years.
Satan first appeared in Christian artwork during the sixth century within mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo featuring Christ the Good Sheppard. Depictions became more common in the ninth century, showing cloven hooves, hairy legs, goat tails, pointed ears, flat noses, and horns. Much of this traditional iconography derives from Pan, a rustic goat-legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion. Saint Jerome equated Greek satyrs and Roman fauns with demons, adapting pagan traits to suit Christian figures. The pitchfork appears adapted from Poseidon's trident while flame-like hair originated from the Egyptian god Bes. Medieval Christians believed witches flew through air on broomsticks to consort with demons in lurid sexual rituals. Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Super illius Specula in 1326 condemning folk divination practices as consultation with Satan. By the 1430s, the Catholic Church regarded witchcraft as part of a vast conspiracy led directly by Satan himself. Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger published Malleus Maleficarum in 1487 arguing all sorcery stemmed from Satanic work. Brian Levack estimates around sixty thousand people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of hysteria ending in the late sixteenth century.
A 2013 YouGov poll found fifty-seven percent of Americans believe in a literal Devil compared to only eighteen percent in Britain. LaVeyan Satanism views Satan not as a conscious entity but as a symbol of entropy providing drive for survival within nature. Peter H. Gilmore stated that Satan represents Man living as his prideful carnal nature dictates rather than worshiping an actual being. The Church of Satan chose Satan because Hebrew satan means adversary or one to question spiritual belief systems hampering enjoyment of life. Post-LaVeyan groups like The Satanic Temple frame Satan as struggle against injustice and activism while believing in bodily autonomy. Theistic Satanists view Satan as a real deity whom individuals may supplicate to as a freedom fighter against Yahweh. Yazidis worship Melek Taus who refused to bow before humanity, leading Christians and Muslims to mistakenly consider him Satan. Wiccans have repeatedly rejected notions that they venerate such an entity despite common Christian assumptions about their beliefs. The cult of Santa Muerte in Mexico has been denounced by the Catholic Church as Devil-worship though devotees identify as Catholic angels of death created by God.
Dante Alighieri's Inferno presents Satan as a giant demon frozen mid-breast in ice at the center of the Ninth Circle of Hell. Three faces and bat-like wings affixed under each chin allow Satan to gnaw on Brutus Judas Iscariot and Cassius for betraying Caesar and Jesus. As Satan beats his wings he creates cold wind continuing to freeze ice surrounding sinners in the Ninth Circle. Geoffrey Chaucer included stories from The Canterbury Tales where Satan lifts his tail revealing millions of friars live inside his anus. The legend of Faust recorded in 1589 chapbook concerns Johann Georg Faust making a pact with Mephistopheles to sell his soul. John Milton's Paradise Lost depicts Satan as a rebel figure challenging divine authority through poetic narrative. Modern popular culture image of Satan as well-dressed gentleman with small horns originates from operas like La damnation de Faust by Hector Berlioz. These cultural shifts transformed Satan from medieval comic relief into complex literary figures representing rebellion or evil itself across centuries of artistic expression.
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Common questions
When did the Hebrew term Satan first appear in religious texts?
The Hebrew term śāţān first appears in the Book of Numbers, where an Angel of Yahweh stands on a road as a satan against Balaam. This generic noun meaning accuser or adversary describes human enemies like Hadad the Edomite and Rezon the Syrian.
Who was the first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden?
Justin Martyr became the first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden in chapters 45 and 79 of his Dialogue with Trypho during the second century AD. Early Church Fathers like Theophilus and Tertullian followed this identification, linking the devil to the ancient serpent mentioned in Revelation 12:9.
What is the Islamic view regarding whether Satan is a fallen angel or a jinn leader?
Muslim exegetes disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of evil jinn due to conflicting textual descriptions. Ibn Abbas asserted that Iblis was originally an angel named Azazil created out of fire while Hasan of Basra argued that Iblis was not an angel but rather the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind.
When did Satan first appear in Christian artwork and what physical features were depicted?
Satan first appeared in Christian artwork during the sixth century within mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo featuring Christ the Good Sheppard. Depictions became more common in the ninth century, showing cloven hooves, hairy legs, goat tails, pointed ears, flat noses, and horns derived from Pan, a rustic goat-legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion.
How many people were executed for witchcraft according to Brian Levack's estimates?
Brian Levack estimates around sixty thousand people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of hysteria ending in the late sixteenth century. This period followed Pope John XXII issuing the papal bull Super illius Specula in 1326 condemning folk divination practices as consultation with Satan.