Bosniaks
In the sixth century, Slavic tribes known as Sclaveni moved into the western Balkans, settling territories that would become Bosnia and Herzegovina. Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus recorded a mention of this land in his work De Administrando Imperio around 960 AD, calling it Bosona. This early reference described a small country or little land within the Byzantine Empire, not yet a distinct nation but a geographical entity settled by Slavic groups along the river Bosna. Archaeological evidence suggests widespread depopulation occurred during the seventh century, with large tracts of land left without inhabitants before new rural settlements appeared along the Danube valley. By the twelfth century, most people living there were influenced by a nominal form of Catholicism characterized by widespread illiteracy and a lack of knowledge in Latin among local clergymen. The region remained a no-man's land between Roman Catholic Croatia and Orthodox Bulgaria due to its mountainous terrain and poor communications. In 1180, Ban Kulin established independence from Hungarian overlordship, marking the start of a religiopolitical controversy involving the native Bosnian Church. Hungarians attempted to gain loyalty by declaring their patchy Christianity heretical, inciting them to persuade the papacy to declare a crusade against the region between 1235 and 1241. The Bosnians consolidated an independent church known as the Bosnian Church, which was condemned as heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Adherents referred to themselves by several names including dobri Bošnjani or simply Bošnjani, meaning good Bosnians or just Bosnians. By the year 1377, Tvrtko I of Bosnia became the first king, expanding into neighboring Serb and Croat dominions. Despite the emergence of a kingdom, no concrete Bosnian identity emerged because religious plurality, independent-minded nobility, and rugged terrain precluded cultural and political unity. All that one can sensibly say about the ethnic identity of these people is that they were the Slavs who lived in Bosnia.
Following the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in 1463, the population underwent a rapid and extensive wave of conversion from Christianity to Islam. This mass Islamisation did not occur immediately but began in the 1480s in central Bosnia and spread to other regions later as Ottoman administration stabilized. Full intensity of conversions occurred during the sixteenth century before numbers stagnated. Western reporters of the 16th and 17th centuries spoke of a Muslim absolute majority in Bosnia and a relative majority in Herzegovina. The process was largely peaceful and voluntary rather than violent, though it involved lengthy halting progress toward final abandonment of previous beliefs. For centuries, converts were not considered full-fledged Muslims and even paid taxes like Christians. Paul Rycaut observed in 1670 that those of this sect strangely mixed Christianity and Mahometanism while paying taxes as Christians did. Demographically, the Muslim population faced epidemics from the mid-17th century and especially during the 18th century because they lived densely in towns unlike rural Christians. The demographic blow was also caused by the Great Turkish War between 1683 and 1699 and wars on Persian and Russian fronts in the 18th century. These losses were compensated by Muslim refugees arriving from Hungary, Syrmia, Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. Some 130,000 Muslims left these regions to settle in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Around 2,200 Muslims settled from Herceg-Novi in present-day Montenegro to areas like Konjic, Rogatica, and Sarajevo after Herceg Novi was taken by Venetians in 1687. Thanks to these refugees, Bosnian Muslims remained an absolute majority until the second half of the 18th century. Ottoman records show that on many occasions the devshirme practice was voluntary in Bosnia and Herzegovina. For example, the 1603, 4 levies from Bosnia and Albania imply that youths and their families attempted to include themselves among those selected. Of groups sent from Bosnia, unusually 410 children were Muslims while only 82 were Christians due to special permission granted by Mehmed II making Bosnia the only area from which Muslim boys were taken.
When Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, national identification in the modern sense had been a largely foreign concept to Bosnians of both faiths. The joint Finance Minister Béni Kállay promoted a non-confessional unitary Bosniak identity encompassing all inhabitants. In 1883 they officially called the vernacular language Bosnian and prohibited cultural associations from using terms Serb or Croat in their names during the 1880s. This policy placed hopes mainly in the Catholic community and the Muslim community which sought to distance itself from the Ottoman Empire. Only a small circle of Muslim notables favored such a unitary nation with Mehmed Kapetanović as its foremost proponent. Although it failed, this ideology laid the foundation for the modern Bosniak identity by emphasizing the pre-Ottoman past. Before this, Bosnian Muslims lacked any cultural ties to medieval Bosnia. The idea of continuity between them and the medieval period through supposed conversion of nobility from Bogomilism was first put forth by Nicholas of Modruš in the late 15th century. Stephan Burián von Rajecz became Finance Minister in 1903 marking a turning point where authorities abandoned the failed Bosniak project. They changed the vernacular language name to Serbo-Croatian in 1907 and referred to Serbo-Croatian Muslims as Mohammedans until early 1900s when term Muslims gained wider acceptance. Official recognition came during the 1910 census while communitarisation of socio-political life harmonized with Serb and Croat nationalist sentiment but remained absent in the Muslim community. Most Bosnian Muslims lacked national identity while those who did often changed it through their lifetime. Historian Robert Donia noted that declarations were mostly tactical and political with some changing camps on several occasions. A separate Muslim identity was too advanced to be easily renounced by any significant number of Muslims. During parliamentary discussions about language names, representative Derviš Bey Miralem stated views reflecting deep reservations about being included in one camp or another.
After World War I, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes formed without acknowledging Bosnian Muslims as a distinct ethnic group alongside Macedonians and Montenegrins. Politically Bosnia and Herzegovina split into four banovinas with Muslims being the minority in each. Land reforms proclaimed in February 1919 affected 66.9 percent of land in Bosnia and Herzegovina since old landowning was predominantly Bosnian Muslim. Violence against Muslims and enforced seizure of lands ensued though compensation promised was never fully materialized. The regime sought to pay 255 million dinars over 40 years with an interest rate of 6 percent starting payments in 1936 expected completion in 1975 but only 10 percent made before war erupted in 1941. Until 1968 Bosnian Muslims received no official recognition as a distinct ethnicity in former Yugoslavia. In 1968 the Constitution of Yugoslavia amended to introduce a Muslim nationality defining native Slavic Serbo-Croatian speaking Muslims on territory of former Yugoslavia effectively recognizing a constitutive Yugoslav nation. Prior great majority declared either Ethnically Undecided Muslim or Undecided Yugoslav in censuses while other options were Serb-Muslim and Croat-Muslim. Hamdija Pozderac remarked that they were not giving them Bosnianhood but offering Muslimness yet they would take what offered even if wrong name to open process. In 1961 Muslims recognized as ethnic group but not as nationality and in 1964 Fourth Congress assured right to self-determination. Rodoljub Čolaković stated their Muslim brothers were equal with Serbs and Croats and would not be forced to declare themselves as such guaranteeing full freedom in national determination. In 1971 Muslims fully recognized as nationality adding option Muslims by nationality to census. By 1991 census figures showed 1,902,956 people identifying as Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina representing 43.5 percent of population.
During the war beginning in early 1990s Bosniaks were subject to ethnic cleansing and genocide causing hundreds of thousands to flee the nation. Bosniaks prevalent throughout almost all of Bosnia in 1991 before war officially broke out concentrated mostly in areas held by government during independence struggle. At outset forces of Army of Republika Srpska attacked civilian population in eastern Bosnia systematically ransacking houses burning apartments rounding up civilians sometimes beating or killing them. Men and women separated with many men massacred or detained while women kept in detention centers living intolerably unhygienic conditions mistreated including repeated rape. Bosnian Serb soldiers selected one or more women from these centers taking them out to commit rape. Bosnian Serbs had upper hand due to heavier weaponry given by Yugoslav People's Army establishing control over most areas where Serbs had relative majority also significant minority areas excluding larger towns like Sarajevo and Mostar. Most capital Sarajevo predominantly held by Bosniaks endured siege for 44 months inflicting suffering on civilians forcing authorities to accept demands. Bosniaks accounted roughly half deaths during Yugoslav Wars approximately 65,000 of 130,000 total fatalities. Around 8,000 plus Bosniak men and boys killed by units of Army of Republika Srpska during Srebrenica massacre July 1995. Research and Documentation Center documented 11,541 victims of siege Sarajevo symbolized by empty chairs at memorial event marking 20th anniversary.
By early 1990s vast majority identified as ethnic Muslims though poll from 1990 showed only 1.8 percent supported idea Bosniak national identity while 17 considered name encompass all inhabitants Bosnia and Herzegovina. Main political party Party Democratic Action rejected idea managing expel those promoting it supporters established Muslim Bosniak Organisation receiving only 1.1 votes during 1990 general election. On the 27th of September 1993 leading political cultural religious representatives held assembly rejecting Owen-Stoltenberg peace plan adopting Bosniak name deciding return people historical national name tie themselves country Bosnia state-legal tradition language spiritual tradition history. Džemaludin Latić editor official gazette commented stating Europe he who doesn't have national name doesn't have country we must be Bosniaks what we are survive country. Decision primarily influenced change opinion former communist intellectuals Atif Purivatra Alija Isaković pan-Islamists Rusmir Mahmutćehajić seeing changing name way connect Muslims to country. September 28 marked Bosniaks Day commemorating anniversary 2nd Bosniak Assembly 1993 when national name reinstated. In other ex-Yugoslav countries adoption less consistent. 2003 Montenegrin census recorded 48,184 registering Bosniaks 28,714 registering Muslim nationality though community divided whether register as Bosniaks adopt national identity or as Muslims nationality. 2002 Slovenian census recorded 8,062 registering Bosnians highlighting decision many secular identify that way situation somewhat comparable Yugoslav option socialist period.
According to 2013 autosomal IBD survey recent genealogical ancestry past 3,000 years continental scale speakers Serbo-Croatian share very high number common ancestors dating migration period approximately 1,500 years ago Poland Romania-Bulgaria cluster among others Eastern Europe. Conclusion caused Hunnic Slavic expansion relatively small population expanded large geographic area particularly expansion Slavic populations regions low population density beginning sixth century highly coincident modern distribution Slavic languages. 2015 analysis found South Slavs lower proximity Greeks East Slavs West Slavs even patterns IBD sharing East-West Slavs inter-Slavic populations Hungarians Romanians Gagauz across area assumed historic movements people including Slavs. Slight peak shared IBD segments between South East-West Slavs suggests shared Slavonic-time ancestry. Autosomal analysis study 90 samples showed Western Balkan populations genetic uniformity intermediate South Europe Eastern Europe line geographic location. Same study Bosnians together Croatians by autosomal DNA closest East European populations overlap mostly Hungarians. In 2015 analysis Bosnians formed western South Slavic cluster Croatians Slovenians compared eastern cluster Macedonians Bulgarians Serbians middle. Western cluster inclines Hungarians Czechs Slovaks while eastern toward Romanians some extent Greeks. Based analysis IBD sharing Middle Eastern populations most likely did not contribute genetics Islamicized populations Western Balkans including Bosniaks share similar patterns neighboring Christian populations. Y-DNA studies show close affinity other neighboring South Slavs notable frequencies I2 43.50 percent especially subclade I2-CTS10228 plus R1a 15.30 percent mostly two subclades R1a-CTS1211 plus R1a-M458 plus E-V13 12.90 percent J-M410 8.70 percent. Haplogroup I2 scores 52.20 percent Zenica 47 percent Tuzla Canton while R1a increases up to 24.60 percent 23 respective region.
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Common questions
When did Slavic tribes first settle in the territory that became Bosnia and Herzegovina?
Slavic tribes known as Sclaveni moved into the western Balkans during the sixth century. This migration settled territories along the river Bosna before any distinct nation existed.
What year was the name Bosniak officially adopted by political representatives to replace Muslim nationality?
Leading political cultural and religious representatives held an assembly on the 27th of September 1993 to adopt the name Bosniak. This decision reinstated a historical national name tied to the state-legal tradition of Bosnia.
How many Bosniak men and boys were killed during the Srebrenica massacre in July 1995?
Around 8,000 plus Bosniak men and boys were killed by units of the Army of Republika Srpska during the Srebrenica massacre. This event occurred in July 1995 within the context of the war beginning in the early 1990s.
Which Ottoman sultan granted special permission for Muslim boys to be taken in the devshirme practice from Bosnia?
Mehmed II granted special permission making Bosnia the only area from which Muslim boys were taken during the devshime practice. Records show that 410 children sent from Bosnia were Muslims while only 82 were Christians due to this exception.
When did the Constitution of Yugoslavia amend to introduce a Muslim nationality defining native Slavic Serbo-Croatian speaking Muslims?
The Constitution of Yugoslavia was amended in 1968 to introduce a Muslim nationality. This amendment effectively recognized a constitutive Yugoslav nation for native Slavic Serbo-Croatian speaking Muslims on territory of former Yugoslavia.